Changes

*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''

*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''

*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''

*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''

*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref>

*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref><ref name=smitskoku>Smits provides different figures, suggesting that the total ''kokudaka'' of the kingdom was assessed at 110,304 ''koku'', of which the kingdom was obliged to pay 21,218 ''koku'' in tax to the Shimazu, leaving the figure of 89,086. Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu,, 237.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref>

*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''

*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''

*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''

*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''

*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''

*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''

The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from [[1429]] to [[1879]].  

The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from around the 1520s until [[1879]].  

Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom was formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. It was an independent state, though a [[tribute|tributary]] to Ming China, until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.

Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom is traditionally said to have been formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. However, as Gregory Smits and others have shown, there is little evidence of a centralized territorial state with a bureaucratized government prior to the 1520s. Ryûkyû operated as an independent and sovereign state in a [[tribute|tributary]] relationship with [[Ming Empire|Ming China]] until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.

The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].

The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].

==History==

==History==

===Origins===

===Origins===

Prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king". [[Tamagusuku]], who ascended to this post in 1314, lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities<ref>For the sake of convenience and simplicity, most sources in English refer to these as "kingdoms" and their leaders as "kings", though most are also keen to point out that the political structures of the time continued to far more closely resemble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not consider these rulers "kings" until sometime around the unification of Okinawa in 1419-1429.</ref>: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center.

According to official histories written by the kingdom in the 17th-18th centuries as part of efforts to legitimate the kingdom and glorify its history, prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king." In truth, most of these local powerholders were likely not indigenous Ryukyuan Islanders who had risen to power within their local communities, nor was their power based primarily in territorial claims or authority. Rather, most were likely "sea lords" who controlled harbors, trading fleets, and trading routes, and vied against one another for such control.<ref name=maritime>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu, 1050-1650'', University of Hawaii Press, 2019.</ref> The traditional narrative names [[Tamagusuku]] as a chief/"king" who ascended to this post in 1314, but who lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center. Though the traditional narrative speaks of these as territorial states - kingdoms that divided the island of Okinawa between them - recent scholarship suggests they should be better understood as "kingdoms for trade purposes"; these were not territorial states so much as they were trading entities, consisting primarily of harbors, fleets, and harbor fortresses, which portrayed themselves as "kingdoms" (headed by "kings") in diplomatic and trade interactions in order to consolidate power, assert legitimacy, and facilitate trade.<ref name=maritime/>

A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, in the traditional narrative, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]]. There is little evidence, however, of a consolidated, bureaucratic, and territorially-based state - a kingdom in the typical sense - until around the 1520s, a century later.<ref>Smits, ''Early Ryukyuan History: A New Model'', University of Hawaii Press (2024), 22ff.</ref>

 

A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]].

===Independence===

===Independence===

[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]

[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]

[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]

[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]

Despite its tiny land area, the kingdom came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref>

Despite its tiny land area, Ryûky6U came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref>

Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref>

Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref>

Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.

Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.

Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''kashira''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref>

Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''[[kashira (Ryukyu)|kashira]]''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref>

The kingdom's booming trade faced challenges throughout the late 15th and 16th centuries, however. The [[Onin War|Ônin War]] influenced Ryukyuan trade to shift to [[Hakata]], [[Bonotsu|Bônotsu]], and other ports in Kyushu, inadvertently providing greater opportunities for the Shimazu to exercise influence; merchants based in Hakata and [[Tsushima]] posing as envoys of the Ryukyuan court interfered with Ryûkyû's genuine efforts to engage in relations with Korea; and the arrival of Europeans and other developments in Southeast Asian shipping caused a decline in Ryûkyû's share of trade in that region as well.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 134.</ref> By the 1570s, trade declined all the more sharply, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref>

The kingdom's booming trade faced challenges throughout the late 15th and 16th centuries, however. The [[Onin War|Ônin War]] influenced Ryukyuan trade to shift to [[Hakata]], [[Bonotsu|Bônotsu]], and other ports in Kyushu, inadvertently providing greater opportunities for the Shimazu to exercise influence; merchants based in Hakata and [[Tsushima]] posing as envoys of the Ryukyuan court interfered with Ryûkyû's genuine efforts to engage in relations with Korea; and the arrival of Europeans and other developments in Southeast Asian shipping caused a decline in Ryûkyû's share of trade in that region as well.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 134.</ref> By the 1570s, trade declined all the more sharply, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref>