Changes

Publishing in Japan was dominated chiefly by the ''[[chonin|chônin]]'' commoner class, and by commercial interests. This was in stark contrast to the situation in certain places elsewhere in the world, such as in [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, where the court maintained control over nearly all publishing. In Japan, certain publishers enjoyed exclusive rights granted them by the shogunate to publish daimyô directories called ''[[bukan]]'', calendars (the publishing of which was restricted otherwise), and city maps, but outside of this, and the occasional commissions from the shogunate for the production of given publications, for the most part the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was relatively uninvolved in publishing. Formal edicts continued to be issued in manuscript form.<ref>Smith. p342.</ref>

Publishing in Japan was dominated chiefly by the ''[[chonin|chônin]]'' commoner class, and by commercial interests. This was in stark contrast to the situation in certain places elsewhere in the world, such as in [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, where the court maintained control over nearly all publishing. In Japan, certain publishers enjoyed exclusive rights granted them by the shogunate to publish daimyô directories called ''[[bukan]]'', calendars (the publishing of which was restricted otherwise), and city maps, but outside of this, and the occasional commissions from the shogunate for the production of given publications, for the most part the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was relatively uninvolved in publishing. Formal edicts continued to be issued in manuscript form.<ref>Smith. p342.</ref>

Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] (c. [[1787]]-[[1797]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.  

Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] ([[1787]]-[[1793]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.  

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated by some scholars at 80% for men, and 50% for women;<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref> including both urban and rural populations across the entire archipelago, the male literacy figures may have been closer to 40-50%.<ref>Schirokauer, et al. ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 137.</ref>

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated by some scholars at 80% for men, and 50% for women;<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref> including both urban and rural populations across the entire archipelago, the male literacy figures may have been closer to 40-50%.<ref>Schirokauer, et al. ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 137.</ref>