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Chinese Imperial examinations (view source)
Revision as of 14:48, 11 February 2014
, 14:48, 11 February 2014no edit summary
In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. The Ming also instituted regional quotas in the metropolitan exams, in an attempt to achieve diversity of geographical origin amongst the bureaucracy. Candidates from northern, central, and southern China would be awarded ''jìnshì'' degrees in a ratio of roughly 55/10/35. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.
In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. The Ming also instituted regional quotas in the metropolitan exams, in an attempt to achieve diversity of geographical origin amongst the bureaucracy. Candidates from northern, central, and southern China would be awarded ''jìnshì'' degrees in a ratio of roughly 55/10/35. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.
The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the [[Ministry of Personnel]], while the [[Ministry of Rites]] oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas. In short, training for the exams became increasingly a private matter, and was no longer provided by the state.
Over the course of the period, the ''jìnshì'' rank became more essential for elite status, with lower-level scholars (e.g. the ''jǔrén'' who had only passed the provincial exams, and those studying at the National Academy) becoming a sort of professional underclass, unable to secure official posts or to be well-regarded in elite society if they did not go on to pass the metropolitan & palace exams, and earn ''jìnshì'' rank.
The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the [[Ministry of Personnel]], while the [[Ministry of Rites]] oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas. The [[National Academy]] (''guózǐjiàn'') remained quite active, and open to ''jǔrén'' studying for the capital exams, but over the course of the period increasing numbers of candidates chose to return to their home provinces to study rather than enrolling in the Academy. In short, training for the exams became increasingly a private matter, and was no longer as extensively provided by the state.
Those from merchant families were permitted to take the exams beginning in the Ming period; however, many others, including Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those from "mean" occupational backgrounds, were still prohibited. Some foreigners, including Koreans, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuans, occasionally took the exams, but a young British man<ref>The son of customs inspector Sir Robert Hart (1835-1911).</ref> was banned from doing so in the late 19th century despite his fluency in Chinese.
Those from merchant families were permitted to take the exams beginning in the Ming period; however, many others, including Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those from "mean" occupational backgrounds, were still prohibited. Some foreigners, including Koreans, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuans, occasionally took the exams, but a young British man<ref>The son of customs inspector Sir Robert Hart (1835-1911).</ref> was banned from doing so in the late 19th century despite his fluency in Chinese.
===Qing Dynasty===
===Qing Dynasty===
The examinations system of the Ming was maintained by the [[Manchu]] rulers of the Qing Dynasty. Additional schools, and separate exams, however, were created for the [[eight banners]]<ref>Comprised of Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese military families.</ref> and for the Qing Imperial family, even before the fall of the Ming. Separate military and civil tracks for officials were created, and separate bureaucracies maintained for those within the banners (Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese military officials) and for Han Chinese from non-military families. The Ming quota system restricting numbers of candidates from different regions (esp. northern China vs. southern China) was now adapted into a quota system for a 4:6 ratio of Manchu to Han Chinese candidates, which was then changed to a 4:2:4 ratio of Manchus, Mongols, and Han Chinese. Despite various policies granting positions to Manchus and Mongols, and restricting somewhat Han Chinese access to the bureaucracy (at least, relatively speaking compared to during the Ming period), Han Chinese continued to dominate the top positions of the exams; the top three ''jìnshì'' positions were occupied by non-Manchus in every round of exams from 1655 to 1883. Han officials on the selection committees attracted blame for these results, however.
Later in the Qing period, quotas were also established for other ethnic minorities, allowing members of groups such as the Muslim [[Hui]] greater access to the bureaucracy. This system came to be abused, however, by Han Chinese who claimed to be native (土籍) in order to earn a position in the bureaucracy through these easier examinations.
At least initially, beginning in the 1640s, essay questions on the exams addressed the issue of Manchu-Chinese societal unification. Top-chosen answers included suggestions for elimination of separate systems or tracks based on ethnicity, and discussions of the differing natures of Manchus and Chinese, with one top-ranking candidate suggesting that Manchus stress substance (質) and so need culture (文) for balance, while Han Chinese are the reverse.
Exams for Mongols and Manchus generally consisted of one question on formal style of documents, and one based on quotations from the Four Books or the Five Classics. Beginning during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (1735-1796), Manchus and Mongols were encouraged to begin taking exams in classical Chinese (rather than in Manchu or Mongol), in an effort to unite the bureaucracies.
Translation exams were also introduced, and scholars appointed to the [[Hanlin Academy]], who would then serve as imperial secretaries, were required to learn Manchu.
The examinations system was abolished in [[1905]], as a more "modern" form of Chinese education, heavily influenced by Western and Japanese models, became dominant, following years of modernization and Westernization throughout other aspects of Chinese society. The [[Qing Dynasty]] fell in [[1911]], marking the final and complete end of the Imperial bureaucracy into which the exams had fed.
The examinations system was abolished in [[1905]], as a more "modern" form of Chinese education, heavily influenced by Western and Japanese models, became dominant, following years of modernization and Westernization throughout other aspects of Chinese society. The [[Qing Dynasty]] fell in [[1911]], marking the final and complete end of the Imperial bureaucracy into which the exams had fed.