Changes

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] through [[Tang Dynasty|Tang Dynasties]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]). In the [[Qing Dynasty]], provincial and metropolitan exams were held once every three years, though additional opportunities, known as "imperial grace exams" (恩科, C: ''ēnkē''), were occasionally offered in conjunction with certain auspicious events.<ref>Over the course of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the metropolitan & palace exams were offered 89 times, or roughly once every 3.1 years. During the Qing (1644-1911), these exams took place 112 times, or once every 2.4 years, including 27 "imperial grace" exams and two "additional" exams (加科). Roughly 5,555 ''jìnshì'' degrees, or 21% of those granted during the period, were obtained through "imperial grace" exams. (Elman, 129n10.)</ref> At each level there were quotas as to how many candidates would be permitted to pass, based since [[997]] on the ratios between successful and failed candidates. However, someone who did not advance to the next level could earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''jǔrén'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jìnshì'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref>

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] through [[Tang Dynasty|Tang Dynasties]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]). In the [[Qing Dynasty]], provincial and metropolitan exams were held once every three years, though additional opportunities, known as "imperial grace exams" (恩科, C: ''ēnkē''), were occasionally offered in conjunction with certain auspicious events.<ref>Over the course of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the metropolitan & palace exams were offered 89 times, or roughly once every 3.1 years. During the Qing (1644-1911), these exams took place 112 times, or once every 2.4 years, including 27 "imperial grace" exams and two "additional" exams (加科). Roughly 5,555 ''jìnshì'' degrees, or 21% of those granted during the period, were obtained through "imperial grace" exams. (Elman, 129n10.)</ref>  

An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. In the early Ming period, the limits were set at 40 licentiates (''shēng-yuán'') per prefecture and 30 per county and department. The [[Xuande Emperor]] (r. [[1426]]-[[1435]]) raised the limits for the capital regions (Beijing and Nanjing) to 60. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century [[Shandong province]], the quota for ''jǔrén'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life. Those who did pass the exams earned a stipend paid out in rice, and an exemption from tax obligations.

The Court instituted quotas at each level limiting the number of candidates who would be permitted to pass. This was done out of a fear that if there were too many degree-holders and not enough jobs, societal problems would result. An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. In the early Ming period, the limits were set at 40 licentiates (''shēng-yuán'') per prefecture and 30 per county and department. The [[Xuande Emperor]] (r. [[1426]]-[[1435]]) raised the limits for the capital regions (Beijing and Nanjing) to 60. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century [[Shandong province]], the quota for ''jǔrén'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life. Those who did pass the exams earned a stipend paid out in rice, and an exemption from tax obligations.

 

Someone who did not advance to the next level, however, could still earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''jǔrén'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jìnshì'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref> The number of people who sat for the lowest level exams was always massive, and the pass rate quite small; in some periods as few as 0.1% of candidates passed the county exams and became ''shēngyuán''. Even so, ''shēngyuán'' came to represent a rather significant proportion of society by the mid-Qing, and such status came to be expected of any member of the elite. To illustrate this shift in demographics, there are estimated to have been roughly one ''shēngyuán'' per 2200 people in 1500, in contrast to a figure of one ''shēngyuán'' per 300 people two hundred years later.

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or [[Ming Dynasty]], the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref> In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the exam consisted chiefly of two essays, one drawing upon the "Four Books," and one upon the "[[Five Classics]]," in addition to policy questions, and from [[1756]] onwards, a section testing the candidate's knowledge of or ability in poetry. Individual emperors often added specific grand edicts or declarations to the exam, such as the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu Emperor's]] addition to the exam of questions testing the candidates' knowledge of his "Great Announcement" (大誥, ''dàgào'') and "Sacred Edict in Six Maxims" (聖諭六言, ''shèng yù liù yán'').

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or [[Ming Dynasty]], the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref> In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the exam consisted chiefly of two essays, one drawing upon the "Four Books," and one upon the "[[Five Classics]]," in addition to policy questions, and from [[1756]] onwards, a section testing the candidate's knowledge of or ability in poetry. Individual emperors often added specific grand edicts or declarations to the exam, such as the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu Emperor's]] addition to the exam of questions testing the candidates' knowledge of his "Great Announcement" (大誥, ''dàgào'') and "Sacred Edict in Six Maxims" (聖諭六言, ''shèng yù liù yán'').