Changes

*''Chinese'': 科舉 ''(kējǔ)''

*''Chinese'': 科舉 ''(kējǔ)''

Imperial examinations served as the chief avenue for Chinese subjects to enter the ranks of the [[scholar-bureaucrat]] class, and to gain prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy. The exams tested candidates chiefly on the [[Confucian classics]], poetry, and the application of Confucian learning to matters of public policy and statecraft; in later centuries, the prominence of poetry in the exams declined significantly.

Imperial examinations served as the chief avenue for Chinese subjects to enter the ranks of the [[scholar-bureaucrat]] class, and to gain prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy.

==System==

==System==

Anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, with the exception of merchants, Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those of "mean" occupational backgrounds, i.e. the equivalent to the ''[[eta]]'' or ''[[hinin]]'' in Japan. Of those permitted to take the exams, in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.

The exams tested candidates chiefly on the [[Confucian classics]], poetry, and the application of Confucian learning to matters of public policy and statecraft; in later centuries, the prominence of poetry in the exams declined significantly. Though in some periods exams were hand-copied by scribes in order to eliminate favoritism from judges who might recognize a candidate's handwriting, in most periods the candidate's [[calligraphy]] was also a major criterion. It was believed that one's characters reflected one's character, and that excellent calligraphy was an indication of a moral and upright individual.

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or Ming Dynasty, the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref> In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the exam consisted chiefly of two essays, one drawing upon the "Four Books," and one upon the "[[Five Classics]]," in addition to policy questions, and from [[1756]] onwards, a section testing the candidate's knowledge of or ability in poetry. Individual emperors often added specific grand edicts or declarations to the exam, such as the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu Emperor's]] addition to the exam of questions testing the candidates' knowledge of his "Great Announcement" (大誥, ''dàgào'') and "Sacred Edict in Six Maxims" (聖諭六言, ''shèng yù liù yán'').

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] through [[Tang Dynasty|Tang Dynasties]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]). In the [[Qing Dynasty]], provincial and metropolitan exams were held once every three years, though additional opportunities, known as "imperial grace exams" (恩科, C: ''ēnkē''), were occasionally offered in conjunction with certain auspicious events.<ref>Over the course of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the metropolitan & palace exams were offered 89 times, or roughly once every 3.1 years. During the Qing (1644-1911), these exams took place 112 times, or once every 2.4 years, including 27 "imperial grace" exams and two "additional" exams (加科). Roughly 5,555 ''jìnshì'' degrees, or 21% of those granted during the period, were obtained through "imperial grace" exams. (Elman, 129n10.)</ref>

The exams were a key element of producing a bureaucracy that was, in theory at least, a meritocracy. Bureaucrats could then be said to have earned their position not through heredity or nepotism, nor through bribes or personal connections, but through genuine aptitude. This marks a stark contrast with earlier periods of Chinese history, and with the Japanese system, in which official positions were, indeed, to a large extent determined by heredity, personal connections, and interpersonal politics. In China, anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, albeit with some significant exceptions: merchants, Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those of "mean" occupational backgrounds (i.e. the equivalent to the ''[[eta]]'' or ''[[hinin]]'' in Japan) were excluded. Of those permitted to take the exams, in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.

The Court instituted quotas at each level limiting the number of candidates who would be permitted to pass. This was done out of a fear that if there were too many degree-holders and not enough jobs, societal problems would result. An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. In the early Ming period, the limits were set at 40 licentiates (''shēng-yuán'') per prefecture and 30 per county and department. The [[Xuande Emperor]] (r. [[1426]]-[[1435]]) raised the limits for the capital regions (Beijing and Nanjing) to 60. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century [[Shandong province]], the quota for ''jǔrén'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life. Those who did pass the exams earned a stipend paid out in rice, and an exemption from tax obligations.

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics, however. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue. Many also established private schools, where alternative methods and doctrines were taught.

Someone who did not advance to the next level, however, could still earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''jǔrén'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jìnshì'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref> The number of people who sat for the lowest level exams was always massive, and the pass rate quite small; in some periods as few as 0.1% of candidates passed the county exams and became ''shēngyuán''. Even so, ''shēngyuán'' came to represent a rather significant proportion of society by the mid-Qing, and such status came to be expected of any member of the elite. To illustrate this shift in demographics, there are estimated to have been roughly one ''shēngyuán'' per 2200 people in 1500, in contrast to a figure of one ''shēngyuán'' per 300 people two hundred years later.

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Tang Dynasty]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. Licensing exams authorized one to move on to the next level of exams, while qualifying exams allowed one to renew or maintain that "license." In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]).  

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or [[Ming Dynasty]], the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref> In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the exam consisted chiefly of two essays, one drawing upon the "Four Books," and one upon the "[[Five Classics]]," in addition to policy questions, and from [[1756]] onwards, a section testing the candidate's knowledge of or ability in poetry. Individual emperors often added specific grand edicts or declarations to the exam, such as the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu Emperor's]] addition to the exam of questions testing the candidates' knowledge of his "Great Announcement" (大誥, ''dàgào'') and "Sacred Edict in Six Maxims" (聖諭六言, ''shèng yù liù yán'').

Those who passed the local exams were known as ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), and were not geneeligible for certain local posts. Those who passed the provincial exams were known as ''jǔrén'' (舉人) and were eligible both for middle-level government posts, and for entry into the [[National Academy]] (''guózǐjiàn''), where one would receive a stipend to support him as he studied for the metropolitan exams. Those who passed the highest level of exams were known as ''jìnshì'' (進士), qualifying them for a fuller range of high-level government positions.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref> ''Jìnshì'' were ranked, however, with only the highest class of ''jìnshì'' being eligible for the highest levels of government positions, including appointment to the [[Hanlin Academy]], where they could serve as Imperial advisors and diplomats. The top three individual ''jìnshì'' candidates in each iteration of the exam held especially exclusive status, and were often eligible for particularly exclusive positions. These top three individuals were known, respectively, as the ''optimus'' (''zhuàngyuán'' 狀元), ''secundus'' (''bǎngyǎn'' 榜眼), and ''tertius'' (''tànhuā'' 探花) of that year's exam, and would retain that reputation throughout their careers. Many of the most prominent scholar-officials in history were among the top three candidates in their respective years.

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of [[Ming Dynasty]] China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. [[Korea]], too, in various periods, beginning under the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]), used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.

In the [[Qing Dynasty]], provincial and metropolitan exams were held once every three years, though additional opportunities, known as "imperial grace exams" (恩科, C: ''ēnkē''), were occasionally offered in conjunction with certain auspicious events.<ref>Over the course of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the metropolitan & palace exams were offered 89 times, or roughly once every 3.1 years. During the Qing (1644-1911), these exams took place 112 times, or once every 2.4 years, including 27 "imperial grace" exams and two "additional" exams (加科). Roughly 5,555 ''jìnshì'' degrees, or 21% of those granted during the period, were obtained through "imperial grace" exams. (Elman, 129n10.)</ref>

==History==

==History==