Chinese investiture envoys

• Japanese/Chinese: 冊封使 (sappoushi / cefengshi)

Chinese investiture envoys were diplomatic missions sent by Ming and Qing China to the Kingdom of Ryûkyû to perform investiture rituals, officially confirming the king of Ryûkyû in the eyes of the Chinese Imperial Court, and confirming his position as a tributary subordinate to the Chinese Emperor within the Sinocentric system of diplomatic relations.

Satto became, in 1372, the first Ryukyuan king to submit to Chinese suzerainty. Beginning with the investiture of Satto's successor, Bunei, in 1406, twenty-two such missions traveled to Ryûkyû in total, the last in 1866, for the investiture of Shô Tai.

Preparation

Upon the death of the King of Ryûkyû, the kingdom sent an emissary to Fuzhou to formally report the sovereign's death. This type of mission was called pao-sang in Chinese. Following the 1609 invasion of Ryukyu, beginning with the succession of Shô Hô, Satsuma han also had to be notified and asked for approval and confirmation of the new king.

It took several years for the Ryukyuan government to prepare to receive a Chinese investiture mission, an undertaking which was quite expensive for the small kingdom, and for which the Chinese government contributed not at all. When preparations were ready, Ryûkyû would sent another emissary, to present the official request for investiture (C: ch'ing feng). This would be accompanied by a formal document, signed or sealed by a great many Ryukyuan officials, from the highest posts down to local lords, acknowledging widespread recognition of this particular king as the rightful king, and declaring loyalty to the man to be invested. Finally, once envoys were selected, a Ryukyuan official would meet the envoys (C: chieh-feng) in Fuzhou. All of these emissaries would travel with Ryukyuan tribute missions, and not on separate journeys in separate craft.

The envoys, known as tien-shih in Chinese (J: 天史, tenshi), were selected from a pool of nominees nominated by the Board of Rites, Grand Secretariat, Hanlin Academy, and Censorate. The roughly fifteen or so nominees would be presented to the Emperor, who would select a chief envoy and a vice-envoy from among them. As the investiture mission was one of formal ceremony and not one of diplomatic negotiations or foreign policy, diplomatic skill or experience was not a criterion for selection; envoys were generally chosen based on their formal classical education. Dressed and equipped with accoutrements far above their rank, the envoys were provided with a minimal amount of funds to support them on their journey. Local officials in Fuzhou saw to their accommodations there, and once in Ryûkyû, the burden was placed on the Ryukyuan government to pay for the envoys' food, shelter, entertainment, and other needs.

The Envoys in Shuri

The Chinese envoys arrived in ships called ukwanshin (御冠船, lit. "Crown Ships") in Okinawan. The mission would usually consist of two official envoy ships, separate crafts carrying the chief envoy and his deputy, as some uncertainty accompanied the journey; these would be accompanied by a number of merchant ships. During Japan's Edo period, an agent from Satsuma known as a kansen bugyô (冠船奉行, "Investiture (Crown) Ships Magistrate") would be sent down to Ryûkyû to supervise the exchanges and interactions between Chinese and Ryukyuan officials, albeit from somewhat of a distance, given the policy of hiding Satsuma's involvement in Ryûkyû from the Chinese.

Arriving in Shuri, the envoys generally stayed for four to eight months, and were extensively entertained by the Ryukyuan royal court. A number of structures built for this purpose (and reconstructed/restored in the late 20th century), including the Ryûtan pond and the Hokuden (North Hall) of Shuri Castle, can still be seen today on the castle grounds. The total Chinese entourage generally numbered between 300 and 800 people, and hosting and entertaining the Chinese envoys was an extremely expensive endeavor for the Ryukyuan court. The envoys were treated to seven formal banquets during their stay; in addition, they were visited by senior officials and ministers once every five days, who brought the emissaries considerable amounts of food.

A "Minister of Dance" (O: udui bugyô) oversaw these entertainments; kumi odori, a traditional form of Ryukyuan dance-drama, was first created and performed for entertaining an investiture envoy and his fellows, in 1719.

During their stay in Ryûkyû, the Chinese emissaries performed two rituals: not only the investiture ritual (C: ts'e feng), but also a ritual recognizing the death of the former king as an "Imperial sacrifice" (C: yü-chi hsien-wang).

The Investiture Ceremony

The investiture ceremony itself was performed in the central courtyard (O: una-) of Shuri Castle, where a structure was erected to represent the Chinese Imperial Court. At dawn on the day of the ceremony, the Imperial patent, Imperial edict of investiture, and Imperial gifts to the king and queen were placed in small portable pavilions. A group of Ryukyuan officials involved with the ceremony met the Chinese envoys and kowtowed to the patent, edict, and Imperial gifts, and then led the envoys and these Imperial objects in procession to the una-, a distance of about three miles (ten ri) from the Envoys' Residence, passing huge crowds of people who had turned out on the sides of the road to see the procession.

The procession met the king and his top advisors at the Shureimon, the symbolic entrance to the castle grounds. The king, and all the officials of the royal government, arranged by rank, kowtowed to the objects held in the portable pavilions, an act symbolic of receiving the Chinese Emperor himself. The king then led the procession into the castle and to the una-, where the objects were placed upon a table and flanked by the envoys, atop the raised platform, the king remaining below, at ground level.

After another kowtow and some music played by the Ryukyuan royal ensemble, the king knelt as the investiture edict was read. He then performed another kowtow, and the title of "king" (C: guo-wang; J: kokuô) was formally granted to him. Further kowtows accompanied the presentation of the Imperial gifts and of the Imperial patent and edict. Though Chinese custom dictated that the edict and patent be returned to the envoys afterward, Ryûkyû always requested to keep the objects as national heirlooms. The envoys' request to have them returned, Ryukyuan request to keep them, and granting of permission quickly became part of the investiture ritual. Before granting permission, the envoys also requested that the patents and edicts from previous investitures be shown to them.

The investiture ceremony concluded with the envoys being led by the king on a tour of the castle, and by a mutual kowtow of farewell. Throughout, the king was swathed in formal Chinese costume, a dragon robe gifted him by the Imperial Court; originally, Ryukyuan kings were given robes of a lower rank, but later would be granted robes indicative of a rank equivalent to Imperial Prince. When the Ming dynasty fell and was replaced by the Manchu Qing dynasty, the Ryukyuans were permitted to maintain Ming costume. By the 19th century, this style, not seen in China for over a century and a half, became a considerable focus of curiosity and attention from the Chinese envoys.

Following the investiture, an emissary would journey to the Chinese capital, to formally express gratitude (C: hsieh-en).

Timeline of Missions

• 1406 - First investiture mission arrives for the investiture of Bunei.

• 1562 - Shô Gen is invested as king.

• 1663 - Zhang Xueli leads the investiture mission.

• 1683 - Shô Tei is invested as king. Wang Ji (1636-1699) leads the mission.

• 1719/9/9 - Kumi odori, a new form of dance-drama, created by Tamagusuku Chôkun for the entertainment of the Chinese envoys, is first performed for the envoys for the investiture of King Shô Kei.

• • 1719 - A dispute breaks out between the Chinese party, led by Hai Pao and Xu Baoguang, and the Ryukyuan officials, led by Sai On and Tei Junsoku. The kingdom had gathered only 500 kan of silver to purchase goods brought from China for trade, but the mission unexpectedly brought 2,000 kan worth of goods. In the end, Sai On negotiated a settlement, paying 600 kan for all of the goods.

• 1756-1757 - Quan Kui and Zhou Huang (d. 1785) lead the mission for the investiture of King Shô Boku, as Senior Envoy and Deputy Envoy respectively. During his time in Shuri, Chou Huang compiles the Ryûkyû-koku shiryaku, an account of Ryukyuan history and customs based on the records and reports of earlier Chinese envoys, Ryukyuan records, and Chou's own observations.

Quarrels started by some members of the embassy, and excessive forcefulness in attempts to force trade, lead to the execution, beating, and banishment of several members of the embassy, and the stripping of Chou Huang of his title (though not his post). A gift of 50,000 ounces of silver by the king, in compensation for the losses in the shipwreck, is returned by order of the Qianlong Emperor.

• 1800 - The investiture mission is led by Li Dingyuan and held during a period of national mourning following the death of the Qianlong Emperor. The seven banquets traditionally held for the envoys are skipped, private trade is discouraged by the lead envoys, and an offer by the king of 10,000 ounces of silver in gratitude is declined by the envoys.

• 1808 - The mission is led by Zhao Wenkai.

• 1836 - The Daoguang Emperor issues an edict explicitly forbidding any members of the embassy to bring goods to Ryûkyû with the intent of engaging in trade.

• 1838 - The mission is led by Lin Hongnian and Gao Renjian.

• 1866 - Final investiture envoys, led by Zhao Xin, arrive for the investiture of Shô Tai.