Changes

While the Portuguese were restricted to [[Macao]], the [[Dutch East India Company]] and later, from [[1699]] the British East India Company, came to trade at Canton. In the 17th century, policies and patterns of trade developed into what has come to be known as the "Canton system." The British, the Americans (from [[1784]] onward), and certain other Western powers were only permitted to trade at Canton, not at other ports, and furthermore, as of a [[1759]] Imperial decree, had to do so through designated guild merchants, who could serve to help guarantee the Westerners' good behavior and regular payment of fees.<ref>Robert Tignor, [[Benjamin Elman]], et al, ''Worlds Together, Worlds Apart'', vol B, Fourth Edition, W.W. Norton & Co (2014), 504.</ref> Further, the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing Court]] placed restrictions on the types and quantities of goods to be traded, the times of year trade could take place, etc.

While the Portuguese were restricted to [[Macao]], the [[Dutch East India Company]] and later, from [[1699]] the British East India Company, came to trade at Canton. In the 17th century, policies and patterns of trade developed into what has come to be known as the "Canton system." The British, the Americans (from [[1784]] onward), and certain other Western powers were only permitted to trade at Canton, not at other ports, and furthermore, as of a [[1759]] Imperial decree, had to do so through designated guild merchants, who could serve to help guarantee the Westerners' good behavior and regular payment of fees.<ref>Robert Tignor, [[Benjamin Elman]], et al, ''Worlds Together, Worlds Apart'', vol B, Fourth Edition, W.W. Norton & Co (2014), 504.</ref> Further, the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing Court]] placed restrictions on the types and quantities of goods to be traded, the times of year trade could take place, etc.

The Westerners were not permitted to enter the city of Guangzhou proper, but were given land along the river, outside the city, where they then established small settlements and factories.<ref>That is, in the pre-industrial meaning of the word "factory," referring to a base of operations for managing trade activities, headed by a factor - not a center of production, as in the industrial meaning.</ref> Foreigners were not allowed to bring their wives to the settlements at Canton, were subject to Chinese law (i.e. they did not enjoy [[extraterritoriality]]), and had to contend with powerful competing Chinese merchant guilds. Only some thirteen Chinese merchant houses were permitted by the Qing authorities to trade with Westerners; dominating the trade in [[tea]], [[porcelain]]s, [[silk]]s, and other goods being sold to foreigners, they gained extraordinary wealth.<ref>Gallery labels, Peabody Essex Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/25135281591/in/dateposted-public/]</ref>

The Westerners were not permitted to enter the city of Guangzhou proper, but were given land along the river, outside the city, where they then established small settlements and factories.<ref>That is, in the pre-industrial meaning of the word "factory," referring to a base of operations for managing trade activities, headed by a factor - not a center of production, as in the industrial meaning.</ref> Foreigners were not allowed to bring their wives or other girls/women to the settlements at Canton,<ref name=harriett>On occasion, women snuck into Canton; when discovered, local officials often threatened to shut down trade entirely until the women left the city. "From Salem ... To China," gallery labels, Peabody Essex Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/24860783819/sizes/l/]</ref> were subject to Chinese law (i.e. they did not enjoy [[extraterritoriality]]), and had to contend with powerful competing Chinese merchant guilds. Only some thirteen Chinese merchant houses were permitted by the Qing authorities to trade with Westerners; dominating the trade in [[tea]], [[porcelain]]s, [[silk]]s, and other goods being sold to foreigners, they gained extraordinary wealth.<ref>Gallery labels, Peabody Essex Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/25135281591/in/dateposted-public/]</ref> The Westerners were also limited to a four-month trading season each year.<ref name=harriett/>

It was through this trade that Britain and the other powers were able to obtain tea, silk, and porcelain to meet growing demand at home and in the colonies. They paid for these luxury goods chiefly in silver and gold, as Chinese merchants and authorities insisted they had little interest in English products such as wool.

It was through this trade that Britain and the other powers were able to obtain tea, silk, and porcelain to meet growing demand at home and in the colonies. They paid for these luxury goods chiefly in silver and gold, as Chinese merchants and authorities insisted they had little interest in English products such as wool.