Changes

===Music===

===Music===

The music in kabuki is performed live, by [[shamisen]] players and an ensemble known as the ''[[hayashi]]''. In ''matsubamemono'' (plays adapted from Noh and ''[[kyogen|kyôgen]]'')<ref>松羽目物, named after the prominent painting of a pine tree that dominates the back of the stage in Noh, ''kyôgen'', and this category of kabuki plays.</ref>, the musicians are often positioned in clear view, seated on an upstage platform that extends across the stage. Normally, however, the shamisen players, along with some drummers and other musicians are located in a compartment at stage right, behind a screen, called a ''geza'' or ''kuromisu'', while the remainder of the ''hayashi'', including those performing sound effects such as bird and insect sounds, perform off-stage.

The music in kabuki is performed live, by [[shamisen]] players and an ensemble known as the ''[[hayashi]]''. There are typically an equal number of shamisen players and singers. The onstage portion of the ''hayashi'', known as the ''debayashi'', has the same composition as the Noh ''hayashi''; it consists of four or more performers of flute, ''ko-tsuzumi'', ''ô-tsuzumi'', and ''shimedaiko''. The flutist, however, plays not only the ''[[nokan|nôkan]]'' (Noh flute), but also the ''shinobue'' and possibly other wind instruments as necessary.

 

In ''matsubamemono'' (plays adapted from Noh and ''[[kyogen|kyôgen]]'')<ref>松羽目物, named after the prominent painting of a pine tree that dominates the back of the stage in Noh, ''kyôgen'', and this category of kabuki plays.</ref>, the musicians are often positioned in clear view, seated on an upstage platform that extends across the stage. Normally, however, the shamisen players, along with the ''debayashi'' performers, are located in a compartment at stage right, behind a screen, called a ''geza'' or ''kuromisu'', while the remainder of the ''hayashi'', including those performing sound effects such as bird and insect sounds, perform off-stage.

Though not strictly considered musical instruments, a pair of clappers, called alternatively ''ki'' or ''tsuke'', located to the right of the stage, play an important role in emphasizing dramatic poses (''mie''), sword strikes, and other moments, as well as marking the beginning and ending of acts, beating out a dramatic rhythm as the curtain opens or closes.

Though not strictly considered musical instruments, a pair of clappers, called alternatively ''ki'' or ''tsuke'', located to the right of the stage, play an important role in emphasizing dramatic poses (''mie''), sword strikes, and other moments, as well as marking the beginning and ending of acts, beating out a dramatic rhythm as the curtain opens or closes.

==History==

==History==

The origins of kabuki are typically attributed to a woman known as [[Izumo no Okuni]], whose troupe's performances, on temporary stages set up in the Kawaramachi dry riverbed of the [[Kamo River]] in [[Kyoto]], beginning in [[1603]], are said to have been the very first "kabuki" performances. However, some scholars point out that these performances, often referred to today as "Okuni kabuki," were likely not radically different from those performed by other women's groups at the time, and drew heavily upon recent performance trends of the [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]].<ref>McQueen Tokita. p230.</ref> These earliest "kabuki" performances consisted chiefly of showy dances, with a minimum of plot or characterization, and were much more similar to today's ''[[taishu engeki|taishû engeki]]'' than the more fully staged and heavily narrative form that kabuki has since evolved into. The musical accompaniment for Okuni kabuki is believed to have consisted of the standard Noh ensemble - chiefly flutes and drums - with only a few other instruments, such as the ''[[shinobue]]'' flute and ''[[surigane]]'' hand-gong added in. The shamisen would not appear until around [[1650]], bringing with it a dramatic shift in kabuki music.

The origins of kabuki are typically attributed to a woman known as [[Izumo no Okuni]], whose troupe's performances, on temporary stages set up in the Kawaramachi dry riverbed of the [[Kamo River]] in [[Kyoto]], beginning in [[1603]], are said to have been the very first "kabuki" performances. However, some scholars point out that these performances, often referred to today as "Okuni kabuki," were likely not radically different from those performed by other women's groups at the time, and drew heavily upon recent performance trends of the [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]].<ref>McQueen Tokita. p230.</ref> These earliest "kabuki" performances consisted chiefly of showy dances, with a minimum of plot or characterization, and were much more similar to today's ''[[taishu engeki|taishû engeki]]'' than the more fully staged and heavily narrative form that kabuki has since evolved into. The musical accompaniment for Okuni kabuki is believed to have consisted of the standard Noh ensemble - chiefly flutes and drums - with only a few other instruments, such as the ''shinobue'' flute and ''[[surigane]]'' hand-gong added in; ''kouta'' was the dominant style of music. The shamisen would not appear until around [[1650]], bringing with it a dramatic shift in kabuki music.

The word "kabuki" (歌舞伎) is today written with three [[kanji|characters]] meaning song (歌), dance (舞), and technique or skill (伎). However, the name of the art form is said to derive from, or be related to, the term ''[[kabukimono]]'' (傾奇者), which referred to eccentric types seen on the streets of Kyoto and Edo around that time, who dressed and behaved unusually, and in general were described as leaning (傾) towards the bizarre and unconventional (奇). Okuni herself is said to have been a ''kabukimono'', along with [[Nagoya Sansaburo|Nagoya Sansaburô]], a figure often said to have been Okuni's onstage partner and off-stage lover, and worthy of credit as co-founder of kabuki theater, but who might in reality have never met Okuni, or might not even have existed at all.

The word "kabuki" (歌舞伎) is today written with three [[kanji|characters]] meaning song (歌), dance (舞), and technique or skill (伎). However, the name of the art form is said to derive from, or be related to, the term ''[[kabukimono]]'' (傾奇者), which referred to eccentric types seen on the streets of Kyoto and Edo around that time, who dressed and behaved unusually, and in general were described as leaning (傾) towards the bizarre and unconventional (奇). Okuni herself is said to have been a ''kabukimono'', along with [[Nagoya Sansaburo|Nagoya Sansaburô]], a figure often said to have been Okuni's onstage partner and off-stage lover, and worthy of credit as co-founder of kabuki theater, but who might in reality have never met Okuni, or might not even have existed at all.

The so-called ''onna kabuki'' ("women kabuki") performances also served as advertising for the women themselves, as prostitutes. As a result, in [[1629]], the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] banned women from appearing onstage. Professional kabuki<ref>''Jishibai'' rural/regional amateur performances, as well as those performed by universities and other amateur contexts, often feature both men and women on-stage; in addition, there are a limited number of women-only troupes officially endorsed by the [[Ichikawa family]] or other segments of the professional kabuki establishment.</ref> remains today a male-only theater form.

The so-called ''onna kabuki'' ("women kabuki") performances also served as advertising for the women themselves, as prostitutes. As a result, in [[1629]], the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] banned women from appearing onstage. Professional kabuki<ref>''Jishibai'' rural/regional amateur performances, as well as those performed by universities and other amateur contexts, often feature both men and women on-stage; in addition, there are a limited number of women-only troupes officially endorsed by the [[Ichikawa family]] or other segments of the professional kabuki establishment.</ref> remains today a male-only theater form.

''Onna kabuki'' was thus replaced by so-called ''wakashû kabuki'' ("young men kabuki"), in which beautiful young men played all the roles. This marked the beginnings of the tradition of the ''[[onnagata]]''. ''[[Koto]]'' was sometimes incorporated into the musical ensembles in ''wakashû kabuki'', the only string instrument used in Japanese theater prior to the introduction of the shamisen. The young men in ''wakashû kabuki'' performed as prostitutes, however, like their female predecessors, and before long ''wakashû kabuki'' came to an end as well, due to the same shogunate concerns about public propriety and morality. ''Wakashû kabuki'' was followed by ''yarô kabuki'' in [[1652]], when laws were changed again, now allowing only older men to perform onstage. This eliminated the element of prostitution from kabuki, and marks the beginning of kabuki's shift towards becoming a more purely theatrical form. Younger actors would eventually be permitted back onto the stage, however.

''Onna kabuki'' was thus replaced by so-called ''wakashû kabuki'' ("young men kabuki"), in which beautiful young men played all the roles. This marked the beginnings of the tradition of the ''[[onnagata]]'', though ''wakashû kabuki'' contained even less narrative content than ''onna kabuki'', consisting more fully of dance pieces. ''[[Koto]]'' was sometimes incorporated into the musical ensembles in ''wakashû kabuki'', the only string instrument used in Japanese theater prior to the introduction of the shamisen. ''Kouta'' remained the dominant style of music, ''nagauta'' having not yet replaced it.

 

The young men in ''wakashû kabuki'', however, like their female predecessors, performed as prostitutes, and it was not long before ''wakashû kabuki'' came to an end as well, due to the same shogunate concerns about public propriety and morality. ''Wakashû kabuki'' was followed by ''yarô kabuki'' in [[1652]], when laws were changed again, now allowing only older men to perform onstage. This eliminated the element of prostitution from kabuki, and marks the beginning of kabuki's shift towards becoming a more purely theatrical form. Younger actors would eventually be permitted back onto the stage, however.

 

 

Numerous features of kabuki can thus trace their origins to the Genroku period, as can some of the most famous and prominent plays in the repertoire, such as ''[[Shibaraku]]''. By this time, narrative had taken a more central role in kabuki, and plays began to be more fully based around a consistent plot, and dramatic characters, though dance remained strong as well. Kabuki dance by this time had shifted away from the abstract and formal ''mai'' dance form of Noh, and away from the folk ''odori'' traditions,<ref>''Mai'' dances can be quite slow, and center on walking in a circle or square, and performing highly formalized, abstract movements; ''odori'' are considerably more energetic dances, generally performed in groups, either in a circle, or in a line. Tokita. p244.</ref> and had embraced the ''furi'' style of more mimetic dance, in which dancers embody a character, and perform dance motions which resemble or represent the actions of a narrative. Even as plays began to incorporate more dialogue and plot elements, the narrative dance-drama form known as ''[[shosagoto]]'' coalesced and gathered strength as well.

Licensed theatre system, censorship

Licensed theatre system, censorship