Changes

Goryeo was first established by Wang Geon, aka [[King Taejo of Goryeo]], in 918, and conquered United [[Silla]] in [[935]]. Taejo established [[Gaegyeong]] as the royal capital in [[919]], constructing a royal palace, government offices, temples, and a system of roads. City walls were added in [[1026]]. Little remains of this Goryeo-era capital, however, at the foot of Mt. Songak in North Korea; archaeological excavations have found only several sets of stone stairs and stone palace foundations.<ref name=natmus>Gallery labels, National Museum of Korea.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/48547245521/sizes/k/]</ref>

Goryeo was first established by Wang Geon, aka [[King Taejo of Goryeo]], in 918, and conquered United [[Silla]] in [[935]]. Taejo established [[Gaegyeong]] as the royal capital in [[919]], constructing a royal palace, government offices, temples, and a system of roads. City walls were added in [[1026]]. Little remains of this Goryeo-era capital, however, at the foot of Mt. Songak in North Korea; archaeological excavations have found only several sets of stone stairs and stone palace foundations.<ref name=natmus>Gallery labels, National Museum of Korea.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/48547245521/sizes/k/]</ref>

Goryeo adopted a system akin to the [[Chinese imperial examinations]] to find and appoint officials, in the 10th century; however, its political culture was far more dominated by Buddhist notions and rituals than by Confucian ones. The dynasty saw the first carving of woodblocks for a printing of the complete Buddhist Tripitaka, in [[1011]]-[[1087]]. As in China, though the examination system ostensibly made government posts open to everyone, in practice an elite class quickly emerged composed of families whose members regularly received posts Fifth Rank and above; these families forged a complex closed system of intermarriages, strengthening their identity as a distinct elite class.

Goryeo adopted a system akin to the [[Chinese imperial examinations]] to find and appoint officials, in the 10th century; however, its political culture was far more dominated by Buddhist notions and rituals than by Confucian ones. The dynasty saw the first carving of woodblocks for a printing of the complete Buddhist [[Tripitaka]], in [[1011]]-[[1087]]. As in China, though the examination system ostensibly made government posts open to everyone, in practice an elite class quickly emerged composed of families whose members regularly received posts Fifth Rank and above; these families forged a complex closed system of intermarriages, strengthening their identity as a distinct elite class.

To the extent that Goryeo did perform Chinese/Confucian political rituals, it did so in ways that were often at odds with its subordinate, [[tribute|tributary]] status within the [[Sinocentric world order]]. Goryeo sent tributary embassies to [[Song Dynasty]] China from [[968]] to [[1020]]. But, the Goryeo Court practiced many things which Chinese models would have dictated were restricted only to the [[Emperor of China]], and which should not be performed by a tributary [[king]]. These included referring to the rulers of Goryeo, at times, as ''hwangje'' (C: ''huangdi''), ''p'yeha'' (C: ''bixia'', J: ''[tennô] heika''), or as “Son of Heaven of/on the East Sea” (東海天子), all terms implying an Imperial, rather than a kingly, status. Further, the kings of Goryeo often wore Imperial yellow, and referred to their realm as "all under Heaven" (K: ''cheonha'', C: ''tianxia'', J: ''tenka''). They emulated the Chinese model in granting their kings temple names ending in ''-jong'' (宗, C: ''-zong'') or ''-jo'' (祖, C: ''-zu''), performed sacrifices to Heaven and other rituals which were only supposed to be performed by an Emperor, and even claimed other peoples as tributaries, at times. Historian [[Evelyn Rawski]] describes all of these practices as a display of how a country like Korea can perform a role within the China-centered regional order, while simultaneously asserting a distinctive identity.<ref>Evelyn Rawski, ''Early Modern China and Northeast Asia: Cross-Border Perspectives'', Cambridge University Press (2015), 135-136.</ref>

To the extent that Goryeo did perform Chinese/Confucian political rituals, it did so in ways that were often at odds with its subordinate, [[tribute|tributary]] status within the [[Sinocentric world order]]. Goryeo sent tributary embassies to [[Song Dynasty]] China from [[968]] to [[1020]]. But, the Goryeo Court practiced many things which Chinese models would have dictated were restricted only to the [[Emperor of China]], and which should not be performed by a tributary [[king]]. These included referring to the rulers of Goryeo, at times, as ''hwangje'' (C: ''huangdi''), ''p'yeha'' (C: ''bixia'', J: ''[tennô] heika''), or as “Son of Heaven of/on the East Sea” (東海天子), all terms implying an Imperial, rather than a kingly, status. Further, the kings of Goryeo often wore Imperial yellow, and referred to their realm as "all under Heaven" (K: ''cheonha'', C: ''tianxia'', J: ''tenka''). They emulated the Chinese model in granting their kings temple names ending in ''-jong'' (宗, C: ''-zong'') or ''-jo'' (祖, C: ''-zu''), performed sacrifices to Heaven and other rituals which were only supposed to be performed by an Emperor, and even claimed other peoples as tributaries, at times. Historian [[Evelyn Rawski]] describes all of these practices as a display of how a country like Korea can perform a role within the China-centered regional order, while simultaneously asserting a distinctive identity.<ref>Evelyn Rawski, ''Early Modern China and Northeast Asia: Cross-Border Perspectives'', Cambridge University Press (2015), 135-136.</ref>