Changes

==System==

==System==

Anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, and in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.

Anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, with the exception of merchants, Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those of "mean" occupational backgrounds, i.e. the equivalent to the ''[[eta]]'' or ''[[hinin]]'' in Japan. Of those permitted to take the exams, in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: ''xuéxiào'') had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county to move on to the provincial exams, then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level, before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. At each level there were quotas as to how many candidates would be permitted to pass, though, someone who did not advance to the next level could earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''jǔrén'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jìnshì'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref>

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] through [[Tang Dynasty|Tang Dynasties]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]). In the [[Qing Dynasty]], provincial and metropolitan exams were held once every three years, though additional opportunities, known as "imperial grace exams" (恩科, C: ''ēnkē''), were occasionally offered in conjunction with certain auspicious events.<ref>Over the course of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the metropolitan & palace exams were offered 89 times, or roughly once every 3.1 years. During the Qing (1644-1911), these exams took place 112 times, or once every 2.4 years, including 27 "imperial grace" exams and two "additional" exams (加科). Roughly 5,555 ''jìnshì'' degrees, or 21% of those granted during the period, were obtained through "imperial grace" exams. (Elman, 129n10.)</ref> At each level there were quotas as to how many candidates would be permitted to pass, though, someone who did not advance to the next level could earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''shēng-yuán'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''jǔrén'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jìnshì'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref>

An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century [[Shandong province]], the quota for ''jǔrén'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life.

An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. In the early Ming period, the limits were set at 40 licentiates (''shēng-yuán'') per prefecture and 30 per county and department. The [[Xuande Emperor]] (r. [[1426]]-[[1435]]) raised the limits for the capital regions (Beijing and Nanjing) to 60. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century [[Shandong province]], the quota for ''jǔrén'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life. Those who did pass the exams earned a stipend paid out in rice, and an exemption from tax obligations.

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or [[Ming Dynasty]], the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref>

Beginning in the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] or [[Ming Dynasty]], the exam came to focus on the "[[Four Books]]" advocated by [[Zhu Xi]], and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref> In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the exam consisted chiefly of two essays, one drawing upon the "Four Books," and one upon the "[[Five Classics]]," in addition to policy questions, and from [[1756]] onwards, a section testing the candidate's knowledge of or ability in poetry. Individual emperors often added specific grand edicts or declarations to the exam, such as the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu Emperor's]] addition to the exam of questions testing the candidates' knowledge of his "Great Announcement" (大誥, ''dàgào'') and "Sacred Edict in Six Maxims" (聖諭六言, ''shèng yù liù yán'').

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of [[Ming Dynasty]] China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. [[Korea]], too, in various periods, beginning under the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]), used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of [[Ming Dynasty]] China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. [[Korea]], too, in various periods, beginning under the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]), used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.

At this time, only roughly 10% of officials earned their positions through the examination system; most obtained their inclusion in the scholar-bureaucrat class via recommendations. Local magistrates recommended individuals, ostensibly, according to a variety of subjective criteria, including their personal virtue, and literary ability, though more often than not, one's family pedigree, and political influence, played crucial roles. While in later periods the exams were restructured to be judged, ostensibly, in an anonymous fashion (thus eliminating elements of favoritism, and helping to ensure that candidates were judged primarily on the basis of the written exams themselves), in the Tang Dynasty, it was quite common for candidates to meet with examiners multiple times prior to the exams, and to send samples of their writing, so-called "warming-the-exam" letters, to the examiners; while in later periods examiners judged candidates' calligraphy as indications of their personal moral character, at this time, it was through these personal relationships that examiners were able to get to know the personal and moral character of the candidates.<ref>Hansen, 206.</ref>

At this time, only roughly 10% of officials earned their positions through the examination system; most obtained their inclusion in the scholar-bureaucrat class via recommendations. Local magistrates recommended individuals, ostensibly, according to a variety of subjective criteria, including their personal virtue, and literary ability, though more often than not, one's family pedigree, and political influence, played crucial roles. While in later periods the exams were restructured to be judged, ostensibly, in an anonymous fashion (thus eliminating elements of favoritism, and helping to ensure that candidates were judged primarily on the basis of the written exams themselves), in the Tang Dynasty, it was quite common for candidates to meet with examiners multiple times prior to the exams, and to send samples of their writing, so-called "warming-the-exam" letters, to the examiners; while in later periods examiners judged candidates' calligraphy as indications of their personal moral character, at this time, it was through these personal relationships that examiners were able to get to know the personal and moral character of the candidates.<ref>Hansen, 206.</ref>

Birth or marriage into a prominent or influential family was often extremely beneficial towards one's prospects of earning a recommendation. In fact, for a time, merchants, artisans, and their descendants were barred from taking the exams entirely; it was only in the 9th century that this ban was eased, and a wider range of people were first permitted to sit for the exams, including at least one Arab merchant, who took the exams at that time.<ref name=hansen230/>

Birth or marriage into a prominent or influential family was often extremely beneficial towards one's prospects of earning a recommendation. In fact, for a time, merchants, artisans, and their descendants were barred from taking the exams entirely; it was only in the 9th century that this ban was eased somewhat, and a wider range of people were first permitted to sit for the exams, including at least one Arab merchant, who took the exams at that time.<ref name=hansen230/> The ban on those from merchant families taking the exam was not fully lifted until the Ming Dynasty.

===Song Dynasty===

===Song Dynasty===

===Ming Dynasty===

===Ming Dynasty===

In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.

In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. The Ming also instituted regional quotas in the metropolitan exams, in an attempt to achieve diversity of geographical origin amongst the bureaucracy. Candidates from northern, central, and southern China would be awarded ''jìnshì'' degrees in a ratio of roughly 55/10/35. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.

The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the [[Ministry of Personnel]], while the [[Ministry of Rites]] oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas.

The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the [[Ministry of Personnel]], while the [[Ministry of Rites]] oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas. In short, training for the exams became increasingly a private matter, and was no longer provided by the state.

 

Those from merchant families were permitted to take the exams beginning in the Ming period; however, many others, including Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those from "mean" occupational backgrounds, were still prohibited. Some foreigners, including Koreans, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuans, occasionally took the exams, but a young British man<ref>The son of customs inspector Sir Robert Hart (1835-1911).</ref> was banned from doing so in the late 19th century despite his fluency in Chinese.

===Qing Dynasty===

===Qing Dynasty===