Changes

*''Chinese'': 科舉 ''(keju)''

*''Chinese'': 科舉 ''(kējǔ)''

Imperial examinations served as the chief avenue for Chinese subjects to enter the ranks of the [[scholar-bureaucrat]] class, and to gain prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy. The exams tested candidates chiefly on the [[Confucian classics]], poetry, and the application of Confucian learning to matters of public policy and statecraft; in later centuries, the prominence of poetry in the exams declined significantly.

Imperial examinations served as the chief avenue for Chinese subjects to enter the ranks of the [[scholar-bureaucrat]] class, and to gain prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy. The exams tested candidates chiefly on the [[Confucian classics]], poetry, and the application of Confucian learning to matters of public policy and statecraft; in later centuries, the prominence of poetry in the exams declined significantly.

==History & System==

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

==History==

===Tang Dynasty===

During the [[Tang Dynasty]] ([[618]]-[[907]]), candidates were permitted to choose between two forms of the exam: a "classics" exam which tested rote memorization of the classics, and a more prestigious "literary" exam which also required a considerable degree of memorized knowledge of the classics, but which also tested candidates on their literary/poetic abilities.<ref name=hansen230>Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 230.</ref>

During the [[Tang Dynasty]] ([[618]]-[[907]]), candidates were permitted to choose between two forms of the exam: a "classics" exam which tested rote memorization of the classics, and a more prestigious "literary" exam which also required a considerable degree of memorized knowledge of the classics, but which also tested candidates on their literary/poetic abilities.<ref name=hansen230>Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 230.</ref>

Birth or marriage into a prominent or influential family was often extremely beneficial towards one's prospects of earning a recommendation. In fact, for a time, merchants, artisans, and their descendants were barred from taking the exams entirely; it was only in the 9th century that this ban was eased, and a wider range of people were first permitted to sit for the exams, including at least one Arab merchant, who took the exams at that time.<ref name=hansen230/>

Birth or marriage into a prominent or influential family was often extremely beneficial towards one's prospects of earning a recommendation. In fact, for a time, merchants, artisans, and their descendants were barred from taking the exams entirely; it was only in the 9th century that this ban was eased, and a wider range of people were first permitted to sit for the exams, including at least one Arab merchant, who took the exams at that time.<ref name=hansen230/>

In the 11th century, the Song dynasty Imperial court made some efforts to reduce the direct influence of prestige and political influence, introducing stronger elements of anonymity into the structure of the exam. The examination system was expanded to make it, in theory, more directly meritocratic, rewarding those of any class or background who had superior talents or skills, and thus creating a bureaucracy of highly skilled, highly competent, officials. The system was not purely democratic or meritocratic, however, as the Court balanced these reforms with other means by which favoritism was allowed to continue, under the assumption that qualified and upright officials could recommend other upright and qualified individuals for service. A system called the "''yin'' privilege" or "shadow privilege" also allowed those closely related to, or in the service of, high-ranking prominent officials to take a different, easier, exam, with a roughly 50% pass rate. The positions earned through such exams were low-ranking and not as prestigious, but, still, they provided entry into the bureaucracy without taking the more difficult standard exams. Through this system, and through careful intermarriage and the like, a group of roughly 100 prominent families was thus able to dominate the bureaucracy for a time, during the Song Dynasty.<ref>Hansen, 267-268.</ref>

In the 11th century, the [[Song dynasty]] Imperial court made some efforts to reduce the direct influence of prestige and political influence, introducing stronger elements of anonymity into the structure of the exam. The examination system was expanded to make it, in theory, more directly meritocratic, rewarding those of any class or background who had superior talents or skills, and thus creating a bureaucracy of highly skilled, highly competent, officials. In addition, the system of appointments was somewhat fluid, allowing individuals to be appointed to posts above their rank. The system was not purely democratic or meritocratic, however, as the Court balanced these reforms with other means by which favoritism was allowed to continue, under the assumption that qualified and upright officials could recommend other upright and qualified individuals for service. A system called the "''yin'' privilege" or "shadow privilege" also allowed those closely related to, or in the service of, high-ranking prominent officials to take a different, easier, exam, with a roughly 50% pass rate. The positions earned through such exams were low-ranking and not as prestigious, but, still, they provided entry into the bureaucracy without taking the more difficult standard exams. Through this system, and through careful intermarriage and the like, a group of roughly 100 prominent families was thus able to dominate the bureaucracy for a time, during the Song Dynasty.<ref>Hansen, 267-268.</ref>

Under the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan Dynasty]] ([[1279]]-[[1368]]), the exams were suspended for a time, but were re-instituted beginning in [[1315]]. At this time, two types, or tiers, of examinations were offered. Han Chinese took an exam based on the Four Books designated by [[Song Dynasty]] [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] founder [[Zhu Xi]]; each candidate was required to write several short essays roughly 300 characters in length on these subjects, as well as a five-hundred-character essay on a different set of texts, plus a one-thousand-character essay on a problem of contemporary governance. The exam for Mongols and members of other nomadic or Turkic peoples, meanwhile, was much less strenuous, involving detailed questions based on the Four Books, and a five-hundred-character essay on a contemporary topic. Even the version of the exam now taken by Han Chinese was much less strenuous than that advocated by Zhu Xi; his influence upon these and later exams would be immeasurable, but, so too would this easier format devised by the Mongols.<ref name=hansen357>Hansen, 357-358.</ref>

The system at this time functioned through six aspects: examinations, schools, appointment, protection privilege, sponsored appointment, and evaluation. The latter two were eliminated or severely curtailed in later periods as part of efforts to stem hereditary power and to strengthen the meritocratic aspect of the exam system.

Meanwhile, even after the exams were restored, many government positions continued to be filled by appointment or by heredity, as was more traditional within Mongol society. Those who did acquire their positions through the exam system were subject to quotas - 50% of those passing the exam each year were to be non-Chinese - making the odds of securing a position in this manner exceptionally difficult for Chinese scholars.<ref name=hansen357/>

Schools were established in each province, where students could receive instruction preparing them for the exams. Students were expected to enter the schools with a certain degree of competency already in classical language and classical texts; though the system was open to anyone in theory, regardless of class, in practice only those from families of some means were able to obtain the education (including even basic literacy) necessary to participate at these schools, and thus to have any chance on the exams.

Anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, and in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.

Under the [[Mongol]] Yuan Dynasty ([[1279]]-[[1368]]), the exams were suspended for a time, but were re-instituted beginning in [[1315]]. At this time, two types, or tiers, of examinations were offered. Han Chinese took an exam based on the Four Books designated by Song Dynasty [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] founder Zhu Xi; each candidate was required to write several short essays roughly 300 characters in length on these subjects, as well as a five-hundred-character essay on a different set of texts, plus a one-thousand-character essay on a problem of contemporary governance. The exam for Mongols and members of other nomadic or Turkic peoples, meanwhile, was much less strenuous, involving detailed questions based on the Four Books, and a five-hundred-character essay on a contemporary topic. Even the version of the exam now taken by Han Chinese was much less strenuous than that advocated by Zhu Xi; his influence upon these and later exams would be immeasurable, but, so too would this easier format devised by the Mongols.<ref name=hansen357>Hansen, 357-358.</ref>

Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.

Meanwhile, even after the exams were restored, many government positions continued to be filled by appointment or by heredity, as was more traditional within Mongol society. Those who did acquire their positions through the exam system were subject to quotas - 50% of those passing the exam each year were to be non-Chinese - making the odds of securing a position in this manner exceptionally difficult for Chinese scholars.<ref name=hansen357/>

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county to move on to the provincial exams, then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empirewide) level, before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. At each level there were quotas as to how many candidates would be permitted to pass, though, someone who did not advance to the next level could earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of ''sheng-yuan'' (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called ''juren'' (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the ''jinshi'' (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref>

In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.

An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century Shandong province, the quota for ''juren'' degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.<ref name=boxer/> The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life.

The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the [[Ministry of Personnel]], while the [[Ministry of Rites]] oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas.

Beginning in the Yuan or Ming Dynasty, the exam came to focus on the "Four Books" advocated by Zhu Xi, and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the [[Analects|Analects of Confucius]], the writings of [[Mencius]], and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the [[Book of Rites]]: the [[Great Learning]] (''Daxue''), and [[The Mean]].<ref>Hansen, 357.</ref>

===Qing Dynasty===

 

The examinations system was abolished in [[1905]], as a more "modern" form of Chinese education, heavily influenced by Western and Japanese models, became dominant, following years of modernization and Westernization throughout other aspects of Chinese society. The [[Qing Dynasty]] fell in [[1911]], marking the final and complete end of the Imperial bureaucracy into which the exams had fed.

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of [[Ming Dynasty]] China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. [[Korea]], too, in various periods, beginning under the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]), used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.

==References==

==References==

*Bonnie Smith et al. ''Crossroads and Cultures''. Bedford/St. Martins (2012), 430-431.  

*Bonnie Smith et al. ''Crossroads and Cultures''. Bedford/St. Martins (2012), 430-431.

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[[Category:Political Institutions]]

[[Category:Political Institutions]]