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Yuan Chonghuan was a prominent [[Ming Dynasty]] general who led Chinese forces against the [[Manchus]]. ...to have numerous political enemies among both the military and the scholar-bureaucracy; when Manchu forces threatened [[Beijing]] in that year, he was accused of

...aucracy, established by [[Wang Anshi]]. The Agency oversaw the exchange of Chinese tea for Tibetan horses; its officials consisted chiefly of merchants recrui

*''Japanese/Chinese'': [[王]] 茂 ''(Ou Mo / Wáng Mào)'' Ô Mo, or Wang Mao, was a scholar-official of Chinese origin who served the Okinawan kingdom of [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] for many years

...oping a new type of ''pyeongyeong'' (C: ''biānqìng''), a type of ancient [[Chinese lithophone]] instrument, which he updated with the addition of pitch pipes. ...icial family, Park passed the Confucian exams and earned a position in the bureaucracy in [[1424]]. However, soon afterwards he left his bureaucratic post in favo

*''Japanese/Chinese'': 懐機 ''(Kaiki / Huái Jī)'' ...latter were one of several key areas used for receiving and entertaining [[Chinese investiture envoys]] to the kingdom.

*''Chinese'': 太宗皇帝 ''(Taizong huangdi)'' ...government such that the military was subject to the control of the civil bureaucracy, rather than being simply separate from it, as had been the case up until t

*''Chinese'': 海禁 ''(hai jin)'' ...edge and skill in maritime navigation, commerce, Ming bureaucracy, ritual, Chinese language, and/or other relevant matters, to gain positions in tributary mis

*''Chinese'': 正德帝 ''(Zhèngdédì / Shoutoku tei)'' ...to have killed a Mongol himself during the fighting. Though blocked by the bureaucracy from being permitted to journey there, the emperor had the relevant officia

The Northern Wei Dynasty of Chinese history was ruled by the Tuoba, a nomadic people from the Mongolian steppes ...rt ranks|nine-rank]] system, a choice which benefited well-established Han Chinese families, and brought the dynasty the support of their political power and

...& adopting of Chinese models of Imperial court ritual, administration, and bureaucracy.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 139-140

*''Chinese'': 天師道 ''(Tiān shīdào)'' ...nized government within their territory. Based on the structure of the Han bureaucracy, it had one particularly key difference: each post was held not by an indiv

*''Chinese'': [[張]]居正 ''(Zhāng Jūzhèng)'' ...ul and prosperous, and full government coffers. He reduced the size of the bureaucracy overall, placed greater central control over provincial governors, and took

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 唐太宗 ''(Táng Tàizōng / Tou Taisou)'' ...ng the Tang Law Code, which would have a profound influence upon all later Chinese dynasties, as well as upon legal structures throughout East Asia. The Japan

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 武則天 ''(Wǔ Zétiān / Busokuten)'' ...the [[Chinese imperial exams|exams]] system. In theory, the exams and the bureaucracy were opened up to people from a wider range of ethnic and economic status b

*''Chinese'': [[張]]獻忠 ''(Zhāng Xiànzhōng)'' ...mber 1644, he declared a new Great Western Kingdom, and began organizing a bureaucracy, minting coins, and so forth. His kingdom lasted only about three years, du

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 道教 ''(dào jiào / dou kyou)'' Taoism or Daoism is a major ancient Chinese philosophy that advocates following the natural order of things, known as t

Jiajing's reign saw the revival of the power of the scholar-bureaucracy, which had been somewhat pushed aside by his predecessor, the [[Zhengde Emp ...t immortality elixirs.<ref>Conrad Schirokauer, et al, ''A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations'', Fourth Edition, Cengage Learning (2012), 248,

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 秦 ''(Qín / Shin)'' ...the Qin represents the beginnings of a great many customs and standards in Chinese Imperial history. Further, it is from the name "Qin" that the word "China"

This period continued to witness the importation and adaptation of Chinese and Korean imperial and religious culture, as well as material culture; [[b ...tence, while the capital city of Heijô stood starkly apart, a microcosm of Chinese elite culture transplanted into a Japan otherwise little changed from earli

Eunuchs played important roles in the Chinese Imperial Court since before the [[Tang Dynasty]]. ...atically, or came to an end, and the majority of eunuchs now came from non-Chinese origins among indigenous peoples of the south and southwest; a great many c

...custom of investiture, of formally confirming the king in the eyes of the Chinese court, would continue as part of tributary relations until the dismantling ...uans]]; Kumemura would grow to become a center of Chinese studies, and its Chinese inhabitants and their descendants would serve the kingdom as diplomats and

...of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Kingdom of Ryûkyû]]; the scholars of classical Chinese studies living in [[Kumemura]], they held the majority of government positi ...he best and brightest of Ryûkyû were invited to settle in Kumemura, pursue Chinese studies, and establish noble houses.

*''Japanese/Chinese'': [[向]]　象賢 ''(Shou Shouken / Xiàng Xiàngxián)'' ...d and oversaw a wide range of reforms, including the streamlining of royal bureaucracy and reining in of royal extravagances.

*''Chinese'': 科舉 ''(kējǔ)'' ...prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy.

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 萬歷帝 ''(Wànlì dì / banreki tei)'' ...gnificant events, Wanli is perhaps most known for his frustration with the bureaucracy and/or distaste for the actual work of governing, to the point that he woul

...etations of the [[Confucian classics]] became the standard canon for the [[Chinese imperial examinations|Confucian civil examinations]] and Confucian politica ...cianism in Chu Hsi", in William Theodore de Bary et al, eds., ''Sources of Chinese Tradition'', Columbia University Press (1960), 534-557.</ref>

*''Chinese'': 朱熹 ''(Zhū Xī)'' ...of "traditional" Confucian learning studied, practiced, and employed in [[Chinese Imperial examinations|Confucian exams]] throughout East Asia.

...ensibly distinct sovereign entities. As early as the 1450s, however, these Chinese-born officials were replaced as the most prominent and influential figures ...stocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocrats]] and commoners, based in part on [[Chinese imperial examinations|Confucian exams]], and in part on inheritance of posi

*''Japanese/Chinese:'' [[尚]] 真 (''Shou Shin / Shàng zhēn'') ...tralized power over an extensive territory, managed through an established bureaucracy and system of rule and law; a height of maritime trade activity and prosper

...from Japan, Bolivia, and around the world were likewise being drained into Chinese coffers. ...na were called ''sŏngjŏl'' (聖節), and those celebrating the birthday of the Chinese Imperial Crown Prince were known as ''ch'ŏnch'u'' (千秋). Towards the en

...is ignored by most people. It is similar, but not identical to the modern Chinese lunar calendar. </ref> However, as almost all source materials for event ==Characteristics of the Chinese calendar==

...eaucrats to have multiple names. Shô Yûkô is a Chinese-style name, used in Chinese-language correspondence. "Ginowan ueekata" is not a name, but a title, whic Chôho served many years in the bureaucracy, and was dispatched on missions to [[Qing Dynasty|China]] and [[Edo period|

...editary fashion, and were eligible for various positions in the government bureaucracy, as well as for the title of ''peechin'', but were generally not eligible t ...zi|status badges]] or insignia squares on the front of their robes, in the Chinese style; after [[1683]], color took over as the chief indicator of rank, with

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 洪武帝 ''(Hóngwǔ-dì / Koubu-tei)'' ...atters.<ref name=schiro244>Conrad Schirokauer, et al, ''A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations'', Fourth Edition, Cengage Learning (2012), 244.

* ''Japanese/Chinese:'' 琉球館 ''(Ryuukyuukan or Ryuukyuu-yakata / Liúqiú guǎn)'' ...ents studying classic subjects in preparation for careers in the kingdom's bureaucracy, and a number of Ryukyuan permanent residents of the city. The chief Ryukyu

* ''Japanese/Chinese:'' 中山 ''(Chuuzan / Zhōngshān)'' ...yûkyû later) would send frequent tribute missions, and would rely upon the Chinese court to officially recognize each successive Ryukyuan king with a formal s

...and years). In China, Korea, and Ryûkyû in particular, a Confucian scholar-bureaucracy formed the core of political administration, with elites studying the Confu ...attitude or worldview.<ref>Conrad Schirokauer, et al, ''A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations'', Fourth Edition, Cengage Learning (2012), 57.<

...ands]] who are described as being entirely unable to effectively resist. [[Chinese investiture envoys|Investiture envoy]] [[Chen Kan]] also described Ryukyuan ...of royal advisors, the most powerful government officials in the kingdom's bureaucracy, below the king himself.

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 明 ''(Míng / Min)'' ...egan with the [[1368]] overthrow of the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan Dynasty]] by Han Chinese rebels, and ended with the fall of [[Beijing]] to [[Manchu]] invaders in [[

::#The Japanese calendar was to be used, and not Chinese reign years. ...ta|Kôchi ueekata]], secretly left for China in December 1876, meeting with Chinese officials in Fuzhou and securing promises that China would aim to resolve t

...ble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not cons

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 清 ''(Qīng / Shin)'' ...ef name=significance>Ping-Ti Ho, "The Significance of the Ch'ing Period in Chinese History," ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 26:2 (1967), 189-195.</ref> It was i

..., or council uniting all Ainu, or any sort of government administration or bureaucracy; the ''kotan'' was, more or less, the largest social (or political) entity ...rthern peoples such as the [[Nivkh]] and [[Uilta]] and to some extent with Chinese empires; robes and other items from the [[Qing Empire]] occasionally made t

...no overall Ainu chief or king, or any sort of government administration or bureaucracy; the ''kotan'' was, more or less, the largest social (or political) entity ...Matsumae clan saw this as a paying of tribute, in the ideological mode of Chinese or Japanese political worldview, but it is not clear that the Ainu saw it i

...of Okinawa; while former members of the Ryukyuan royal government scholar-bureaucracy held many governmental posts, the top levels of government, and education o ...a pro-Japanese ''[[Kaika-to|Kaika-tô]]'' ("Enlightenment Party") and a pro-Chinese ''[[Ganko-to|Ganko-tô]]'' ("Stubborn Party").<ref>"Ōta Chōfu." ''Okinawa