Changes

*''Japanese'': 長崎 ''(Nagasaki)''

*''Japanese'': 長崎 ''(Nagasaki)''

Nagasaki is a port city in [[Kyushu]], the capital of [[Nagasaki prefecture]]. It is perhaps most famous today for the atomic bombing of the city on August 9, 1945, but was in the [[Edo period]] one of the most major ports in the archipelago for international trade, home to communities of [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese]] and [[VOC|Dutch]] merchants.  

Nagasaki is a port city in [[Kyushu]], the capital of [[Nagasaki prefecture]]. It is perhaps most famous today for the atomic bombing of the city on August 9, 1945, but was in the [[Edo period]] one of the most major ports in the archipelago for international trade, home to communities of [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese]] and [[VOC|Dutch]] merchants.  

The city was established as a trading post c. 1570-1572, and quickly became a major port for Portuguese and Spanish trade. Converted [[Christianity|Christian]] warlord [[Omura Sumitada|Ômura Sumitada]] ceded the port town to the [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuits) in [[1580]], including judicial authority within the town. They quickly established a church and ''seminario'' (a Jesuit school for Japanese youths), which included within it a painting academy. The Christian community in Nagasaki enjoyed some considerable early successes, but soon came under persecution; in a particularly (in)famous incident in [[1597]], [[Twenty-six Martyrs of Nagasaki|26 Christians]] in the city, a combination of Europeans and Japanese converts, were executed at the orders of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]].  

The city was established as a trading post c. 1570-1572, and quickly became a major port for Portuguese and Spanish trade. Converted [[Christianity|Christian]] warlord [[Omura Sumitada|Ômura Sumitada]] ceded the port town to the [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuits) in [[1580]], including judicial authority within the town. They quickly established a church and ''seminario'' (a Jesuit school for Japanese youths), which included within it a painting academy. The Christian community in Nagasaki enjoyed some considerable early successes, but soon came under persecution; in a particularly (in)famous incident in [[1597]], [[Twenty-six Martyrs of Nagasaki|26 Christians]] in the city, a combination of Europeans and Japanese converts, were executed at the orders of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]].  

[[Marius Jansen]], ''China in the Tokugawa World'', Harvard University Press (1992), 8-9.</ref>

[[Marius Jansen]], ''China in the Tokugawa World'', Harvard University Press (1992), 8-9.</ref>

The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] issued its first bans on Christianity in [[1606]], shutting down Jesuit operations in Nagasaki and expelling them from the country in [[1614]]. Chinese ships were restricted to Nagasaki, and European ships to Nagasaki and the nearby port of [[Hirado]], in [[1616]]. Kyushu ''daimyô'' such as [[Shimazu Tadatsune|Shimazu Iehisa]] and [[Kato Kiyomasa|Katô Kiyomasa]], eager to prove their loyalty to the shogunate, redirected Chinese ships, shipwrecked sailors, and hostages taken in war, from their own domains to Nagasaki at that time.<ref name=jansen/> The Spanish were then expelled fully from the country in [[1624]], and Japanese were forbidden from returning from overseas in [[1630]]. For the remainder of the Edo period, foreign trade at Nagasaki was restricted almost entirely to the Dutch and Chinese;<ref>The "Dutch" community also included some other Europeans, such as Germans and Swedes, from time to time, and the occasional trading ship from Vietnam or elsewhere in Southeast Asia was accepted as falling under the category of ''Tôsen'' ("Chinese" ships).</ref> on the rare occasion that Russian or certain other ships attempted to enter the country, they were directed to Nagasaki as well, though they were rarely actually allowed to land people or enter into trade.

The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] issued its first bans on Christianity in [[1606]], shutting down Jesuit operations in Nagasaki and expelling them from the country in [[1614]]. Chinese and European ships were restricted to Nagasaki and the nearby port of [[Hirado]] in [[1616]], and then to just Nagasaki in several steps over the course of the 1630s.<ref>Jansen, 26.</ref> Kyushu ''daimyô'' such as [[Shimazu Tadatsune|Shimazu Iehisa]] and [[Kato Kiyomasa|Katô Kiyomasa]], eager to prove their loyalty to the shogunate, redirected Chinese ships, shipwrecked sailors, and hostages taken in war, from their own domains to Nagasaki at that time.<ref name=jansen/> The Spanish were then expelled fully from the country in [[1624]], and Japanese were forbidden from returning from overseas in [[1630]]. For the remainder of the Edo period, foreign trade at Nagasaki was restricted almost entirely to the Dutch and Chinese;<ref>The "Dutch" community also included some other Europeans, such as Germans and Swedes, from time to time, and the occasional trading ship from Vietnam or elsewhere in Southeast Asia was accepted as falling under the category of ''Tôsen'' ("Chinese" ships).</ref> on the rare occasion that Russian or certain other ships attempted to enter the country, they were directed to Nagasaki as well, though they were rarely actually allowed to land people or enter into trade.

In the course of a series of these [[maritime prohibitions]] (''kaikin'') put into in the 1630s, the Spanish and Portuguese were banned from the country, and the Dutch were restricted to the tiny artificial island of [[Dejima]], in Nagasaki harbor. Chinese merchants, originally free to move about the city (and the country), and to intermingle with the Japanese, were restricted after [[1689]] to the Chinese neighborhood of Nagasaki, known as the ''[[Tojin yashiki|Tôjin yashiki]]'' ("Chinese mansions"). Pigs were raised in a certain area just outside of the city, serving chiefly these two foreign communities. Nagasaki was the only place in Edo period Japan where meat was commonly eaten, with the exceptions in other parts of the archipelago of the consumption of fowl, game animals such as bear, boar, and deer, consumption of meat for medical purposes, and of course the eating of fish.<ref>Herbert Plutschow, ''A Reader in Edo Period Travel'', Kent: Global Oriental (2006), 47.</ref>

In the course of a series of these [[maritime prohibitions]] (''kaikin'') put into in the 1630s, the Spanish and Portuguese were banned from the country, and the Dutch were restricted to the tiny artificial island of [[Dejima]], in Nagasaki harbor. Chinese merchants, originally free to move about the city (and the country), and to intermingle with the Japanese, were restricted after [[1689]] to the Chinese neighborhood of Nagasaki, known as the ''[[Tojin yashiki|Tôjin yashiki]]'' ("Chinese mansions"). Pigs were raised in a certain area just outside of the city, serving chiefly these two foreign communities. Nagasaki is sometimes said to have been the only place in Edo period Japan where meat was commonly eaten, with the exceptions in other parts of the archipelago of the consumption of fowl, game animals such as bear, boar, and deer, consumption of meat for medical purposes, and of course the eating of fish.<ref>Herbert Plutschow, ''A Reader in Edo Period Travel'', Kent: Global Oriental (2006), 47.</ref>

Along with [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], and a handful of other cities, Nagasaki was controlled directly by the shogunate, and was not included within any ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' domain; defense of the port was the responsibility, however, of the ''daimyô'' of all the domains on Kyushu, as part of their corvée obligations to the shogun.<ref>Tsushima and Satsuma han were granted an exemption from this obligation beginning in [[1748]]. Hellyer, 65, 68.</ref> This was handled primarily by [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], each of which oversaw the defenses for one year at a time, handing over to one another in the fourth month each year. Those sent to Nagasaki included not only warriors, but also roughly 95 to 165 villagers - chiefly fishermen and other boatmen - impressed into service by way of corvée obligations, to transport warriors in their boats, and/or to serve otherwise in Nagasaki. While middle- and high-ranking Fukuoka retainers served in Nagasaki for around 100 days at a time, lower-ranking figures such as ''[[ashigaru]]'' typically served for the entire year. Incidents such as the arrival of Russian and British ships in the early years of the 1800s spurred dramatic expansion of defensive precautions, and thus expansion of the number of men dispatched from Fukuoka and Saga to aid in the defense. On two occasions in [[1800]], more than 10% of the adult male population of Fukuoka domain is said to have been on guard duty in Nagasaki, and in [[1808]], when the HMS ''[[Phaeton Incident|Phaeton]]'' sailed into Nagasaki harbor, Fukuoka sent 8,000 men to aid in the defense; they arrived, however, too late, after the ''Phaeton'' had already departed.<ref>Arne Kalland, ''Fishing Villages in Tokugawa Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (1995), 216-217.</ref>

Along with [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], and a handful of other cities, Nagasaki was controlled directly by the shogunate, and was not included within any ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' domain; defense of the port was the responsibility, however, of the ''daimyô'' of all the domains on Kyushu, as part of their corvée obligations to the shogun.<ref>Tsushima and Satsuma han were granted an exemption from this obligation beginning in [[1748]]. Hellyer, 65, 68.</ref> This was handled primarily by [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], each of which oversaw the defenses for one year at a time, handing over to one another in the fourth month each year. Fukuoka originally stationed one thousand warriors in the port, removing them when it was Saga's turn each other year; other domains were obliged to contribute to the defenses only on occasions of exceptional need, such as when the Portuguese tried to reopen relations in [[1647]], and Kyushu and [[Shikoku]] domains contributed a total of 50,000 men.<ref>Jansen, 12.</ref>

 

Those sent to Nagasaki in typical years included not only warriors, but also roughly 95 to 165 villagers - chiefly fishermen and other boatmen - impressed into service by way of corvée obligations, to transport warriors in their boats, and/or to serve otherwise in Nagasaki. While middle- and high-ranking Fukuoka retainers served in Nagasaki for around 100 days at a time, lower-ranking figures such as ''[[ashigaru]]'' typically served for the entire year. Incidents such as the arrival of Russian and British ships in the early years of the 1800s spurred dramatic expansion of defensive precautions, and thus expansion of the number of men dispatched from Fukuoka and Saga to aid in the defense. On two occasions in [[1800]], more than 10% of the adult male population of Fukuoka domain is said to have been on guard duty in Nagasaki, and in [[1808]], when the HMS ''[[Phaeton Incident|Phaeton]]'' sailed into Nagasaki harbor, Fukuoka sent 8,000 men to aid in the defense; they arrived, however, too late, after the ''Phaeton'' had already departed.<ref>Arne Kalland, ''Fishing Villages in Tokugawa Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (1995), 216-217.</ref>

A samurai official known as the ''[[Nagasaki bugyo|Nagasaki bugyô]]'' (Nagasaki Magistrate) was the chief shogunal authority in the city, overseeing both matters within the city, and matters of trade at the port. A ''daikan'', appointed from amongst the Nagasaki [[chonin|townsmen]], also helped oversee local matters. The first such ''daikan'' was the Christian [[Murayama Toan|Murayama Tôan]], who was appointed by Hideyoshi, and continued in the position until [[1619]], when he was executed for his religion. Townsmen continued to serve as ''daikan'' until [[1676]], when town elders (''machi toshiyori'') took over the position.<ref name=jansen/>

A samurai official known as the ''[[Nagasaki bugyo|Nagasaki bugyô]]'' (Nagasaki Magistrate) was the chief shogunal authority in the city, overseeing both matters within the city, and matters of trade at the port. A ''daikan'', appointed from amongst the Nagasaki [[chonin|townsmen]], also helped oversee local matters. The first such ''daikan'' was the Christian [[Murayama Toan|Murayama Tôan]], who was appointed by Hideyoshi, and continued in the position until [[1619]], when he was executed for his religion. Townsmen continued to serve as ''daikan'' until [[1676]], when town elders (''machi toshiyori'') took over the position.<ref name=jansen/>

For several decades in the 17th century, the ''bugyô'' was further assisted by the ''[[Nagasaki tandai shoku]]'', who was responsible for the defense of the port. Following that, a clearinghouse or customs office known as the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'' was established in [[1698]] and quickly became the chief institution regulating trade at the port, remaining so up until the [[Meiji Restoration|fall of the shogunate]] in [[1867]]. Despite numerous dramatic shifts in shogunate policies and in the markets for various goods, the overall total monetary value of the trade done annually at Nagasaki remained steady for nearly this entire period, from 1711 to 1840.<ref>Hellyer, 85.</ref>

For several decades in the 17th century, the ''bugyô'' was further assisted by the ''[[Nagasaki tandai shoku]]'', who was responsible for the defense of the port. Following that, a clearinghouse or customs office known as the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'' was established in [[1698]] and quickly became the chief institution regulating trade at the port, remaining so up until the [[Meiji Restoration|fall of the shogunate]] in [[1867]]. Despite numerous dramatic shifts in shogunate policies and in the markets for various goods, the overall total monetary value of the trade done annually at Nagasaki remained steady for nearly this entire period, from 1711 to 1840.<ref>Hellyer, 85.</ref>

Many Kyushu [[han|domains]], including Tsushima and [[Satsuma han|Satsuma]], maintained domain offices in the city.<ref>Hellyer, 28.</ref> Agents of Tsushima were stationed in the port city in part in order to purchase from Chinese and Dutch merchants certain Southeast Asian luxury commodities such as buffalo horn, alum, and sappanwood, which Tsushima could then give to the Korean Court as [[tribute]] goods; by authorization of the shogunate, these Tsushima officials were permitted to buy the highest quality such goods available at a highly reduced rate.<ref>Hellyer, 56.</ref> Korean castaways found/rescued anywhere in Japan were sent to the Tsushima han office in Nagasaki, after which they could be repatriated to the ''[[Wakan]]'' ("Japan House") in [[Pusan]]. All other foreign castaways similarly passed through Nagasaki, with the exception of those from [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû]], who were sent to [[Kagoshima]] to be repatriated. Kagoshima also handled Japanese castaways who had been found/rescued in the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyus]].

Thirty-six [[han|domains]], including Tsushima and [[Satsuma han|Satsuma]], maintained domain offices in the city.<ref>Hellyer, 28. Jansen, 12.</ref> Agents of Tsushima were stationed in the port city in part in order to purchase from Chinese and Dutch merchants certain Southeast Asian luxury commodities such as buffalo horn, alum, and sappanwood, which Tsushima could then give to the Korean Court as [[tribute]] goods; by authorization of the shogunate, these Tsushima officials were permitted to buy the highest quality such goods available at a highly reduced rate.<ref>Hellyer, 56.</ref> Korean castaways found/rescued anywhere in Japan were sent to the Tsushima han office in Nagasaki, after which they could be repatriated to the ''[[Wakan]]'' ("Japan House") in [[Pusan]]. All other foreign castaways similarly passed through Nagasaki, with the exception of those from [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû]], who were sent to [[Kagoshima]] to be repatriated. Kagoshima also handled Japanese castaways who had been found/rescued in the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyus]].

 

After the port was opened to Western merchant activity in the [[Bakumatsu period]], for a brief time Western merchants attempted to insert themselves into the existing trade networks in marine products, etc. and in Chinese goods. However, around the same time, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] caused the number of Chinese ships calling at the port to plummet, and the traditional patterns of trade between the Chinese residents in Nagasaki and the ''Nagasaki kaisho'' collapsed. The character of activity at the port transformed rapidly, as direct trade with Westerners came to dominate; Chinese merchants in the port city turned to insert themselves into this new pattern, abandoning the old one. The port also quickly became the site of a lively trade in modern steamships and sailing vessels, with as many as 106 ships being sold at Nagasaki between [[1860]] and [[1867]]. Satsuma, among others, began collecting goods from various domains to sell at Nagasaki, as the port was thrown open to freer involvement of outside parties.<ref>Hellyer, 197.</ref>

After the port was opened to Western merchant activity in the [[Bakumatsu period]], for a brief time Western merchants attempted to insert themselves into the existing trade networks in marine products, etc. and in Chinese goods. However, around the same time, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] caused the number of Chinese ships calling at the port to plummet, and the traditional patterns of trade between the Chinese residents in Nagasaki and the ''Nagasaki kaisho'' collapsed. The character of activity at the port transformed rapidly, as direct trade with Westerners came to dominate; Chinese merchants in the port city turned to insert themselves into this new pattern, abandoning the old one. The port also quickly became the site of a lively trade in modern steamships and sailing vessels, with as many as 106 ships being sold at Nagasaki between [[1860]] and [[1867]]. Satsuma, among others, began collecting goods from various domains to sell at Nagasaki, as the port was thrown open to freer involvement of outside parties.<ref>Hellyer, 197.</ref>

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