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This practice of marking graves with wooden, and later stone, markers is believed to have been imported from the Continent, although the ''gorintô'' form is a distinctively Japanese one, and does not generally appear on Chinese graves. The first stone ''gorintô'' grave markers were erected for members of the aristocracy, and elite monks, by Chinese stonecarvers who had been brought over to Japan to aid in the reconstruction of the great temple at [[Todai-ji|Tôdai-ji]], in [[Nara]], which had been destroyed in the [[Genpei War]] ([[1180]]-[[1185]]). Some of the very first such stone ''gorintô'' grave markers may have been erected at [[Mt. Koya|Mt. Kôya]]. The practice quickly spread, however, with stone markers of this type appearing in places as disparate as [[Hiraizumi]] (in the north, modern-day [[Iwate prefecture]]) and parts of Kyushu less than a century later. [[Yi Xingmo]] and a number of the other Chinese stonemasons remained in Japan, with their disciples and descendants developing into the [[Okura school|Ôkura]] and [[I school|I (Yi) schools]] of stoneworking.<ref name=glassman/>
This practice of marking graves with wooden, and later stone, markers is believed to have been imported from the Continent, although the ''gorintô'' form is a distinctively Japanese one, and does not generally appear on Chinese graves. The first stone ''gorintô'' grave markers were erected for members of the aristocracy, and elite monks, by Chinese stonecarvers who had been brought over to Japan to aid in the reconstruction of the great temple at [[Todai-ji|Tôdai-ji]], in [[Nara]], which had been destroyed in the [[Genpei War]] ([[1180]]-[[1185]]). Some of the very first such stone ''gorintô'' grave markers may have been erected at [[Mt. Koya|Mt. Kôya]]. The practice quickly spread, however, with stone markers of this type appearing in places as disparate as [[Hiraizumi]] (in the north, modern-day [[Iwate prefecture]]) and parts of Kyushu less than a century later. [[Yi Xingmo]] and a number of the other Chinese stonemasons remained in Japan, with their disciples and descendants developing into the [[Okura school|Ôkura]] and [[I school|I (Yi) schools]] of stoneworking.<ref name=glassman/>
Many [[Kamakura period]] graves, as well as some [[Edo period]] ''daimyô'' graves, feature tombstones erected atop stone sculptures in the shape of a turtle. These ''kifu'' ("turtle seated") graves 亀趺墓 take the form of a "spirit turtle" (''reiki'' 霊亀) with hexagonal patterns on its shell and its head held up. It is a form that originated some 1500 years ago in China and continues to be widely used in China. The vast majority of Edo period turtle-shaped gravestones mark the graves of members of ''daimyô'' families; non-daimyô examples are rare. A group of such turtle-shaped gravestones at [[Manshu-ji|Manshû-ji]] temple in the [[Inland Sea]] port town of [[Mitarai]] are said to be among the oldest in Japan outside of ''daimyô'' graves.<ref>Plaques on-site at Manshû-ji, Mitarai.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/36719337742/in/photostream/]</ref>
All Emperors from [[Emperor Shomu|Shômu]] ([[724]]-[[749]]) to [[Emperor Komei|Kômei]] ([[1846]]-[[1867]]) were buried in Buddhist ceremonies; all those from [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitô]] ([[686]]-[[697]]) until the beginning of the [[Edo period]], with a few exceptions, were cremated. Early in that period, from Jitô (686-697) until [[Emperor Junna]] ([[823]]-[[833]]), the bones remaining after cremation were powdered and scattered.<ref name=amino>Amino Yoshihiko. "Deconstructing 'Japan'." ''East Asian History'' 3 (1992), 122.</ref>
From [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kômyô]] ([[1336]]-[[1347]]) onwards, for a time, Emperors were buried at sites chosen by Buddhist ritual, nearby to a major temple; funerary rites associated with cremation were employed, but the bodies were actually buried.<ref>This and the previous statement seem to contradict one another; it is unclear from Amino's text which was the case.</ref> Beginning with [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kôgon]] ([[1352]]-[[1370]]),<ref>Or possibly [[Emperor Go-Mizunoo]] (r. [[1611]]-[[1629]]), as indicated in Amino, p141.</ref> a number of emperors were buried in simple graves, and without tumuli, at [[Sennyu-ji|Sennyû-ji]]; [[Emperor Go-Hanazono]] was an exception.<ref name=amino/>
==Edo Period==
==Edo Period==
As in earlier periods, burial practices in the Edo period differed considerably by hierarchical class. The tomb of [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] (d. [[1716]]) at [[Zojo-ji|Zôjô-ji]] is perhaps indicative of the typical form of shogunal burial. A small stone pagoda-like structure stands at the center of a stone platform, ringed by a stone fence. The shogun is buried some distance below, underground, in a wooden coffin, within another wooden ([[paulownia]]) casket, within a burial chamber of cut stone.<ref name=rekihaku>Gallery labels, "What Graves say about Status and Wealth," National Museum of Japanese History.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/12591356384/sizes/o/]</ref> Shogunal tombs at [[Kan'ei-ji]] are each located within their own distinct section of the cemetery grounds, each with their own lavish vermillion-painted gateway, ornamented with a plaque inscribed by the Emperor himself.<ref>Plaques on-site at the mausoleum gates of shogunal graves, Kan'ei-ji.</ref>
As in earlier periods, burial practices in the Edo period differed considerably by hierarchical class. The tomb of [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]] (d. [[1716]]) at [[Zojo-ji|Zôjô-ji]] is perhaps indicative of the typical form of shogunal burial. A small stone pagoda-like structure stands at the center of a stone platform, ringed by a stone fence. The shogun is buried some distance below, underground, in a wooden coffin, within another wooden ([[paulownia]]) casket, within a burial chamber of cut stone.<ref name=rekihaku>Gallery labels, "What Graves say about Status and Wealth," National Museum of Japanese History.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/12591356384/sizes/o/]</ref> Shogunal tombs at [[Kan'ei-ji]] are each located within their own distinct section of the cemetery grounds, each with their own lavish vermillion-painted gateway, ornamented with a plaque inscribed by the Emperor himself.<ref>Plaques on-site at the mausoleum gates of shogunal graves, Kan'ei-ji.</ref>
The grave of [[Makino Tadakazu]] (d. [[1735]]), lord of [[Nagaoka han]], at the [[Makino clan]] [[family temple]] of [[Saikai-ji]] in Tokyo, might be taken as an example of a typical ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' burial. Makino is also buried in a double set of wooden caskets, within a cut-stone burial chamber, though the above-ground portion of the tomb is far less extensive. It consists chiefly of a single ''hôkyôintô'' pagoda-like stone marker.<ref name=rekihaku/>
The grave of [[Makino Tadakazu]] (d. [[1735]]), lord of [[Nagaoka han]], at the [[Makino clan]] [[family temple]] of [[Saikai-ji]] in Tokyo, might be taken as an example of a typical ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' burial. Makino is also buried in a double set of wooden caskets, within a cut-stone burial chamber, though the above-ground portion of the tomb is far less extensive. It consists chiefly of a single ''hôkyôintô'' pagoda-like stone marker.<ref name=rekihaku/>
For at least some portion of the commoner population, it was common to be buried in wooden caskets, sometimes rather roughly made ones, and buried alongside numerous others.<ref name=rekihaku/>
For at least some portion of the commoner population, it was common to be buried in wooden caskets, sometimes rather roughly made ones, and buried alongside numerous others.<ref name=rekihaku/>
==Meiji Period==
A reconfiguration of Imperial burial practices was one of a number of key elements of the [[Meiji government|Meiji government's]] [[haibutsu kishaku|anti-Buddhist policies]], and construction of [[State Shinto]]. [[Emperor Komei|Emperor Kômei]] (d. [[1867]]) was the last emperor to be given a Buddhist funeral. When his consort, [[Empress Dowager Eisho|Empress Dowager Eishô]], died in [[1897]], she was given a funeral in the newly invented tradition of State Shintô, albeit on the grounds of Sennyû-ji. This was the last Imperial funeral to take place at a Buddhist temple. Their son, the [[Meiji Emperor]], was given a State Shintô funeral following his death in [[1912]]. A temporary structure called the ''sôjôden'' was constructed at the Aoyama Parade Grounds (today, the outer gardens of [[Meiji Shrine]]), where a funeral ceremony was performed before placing the imperial casket on a funeral train to Kyoto. The grave of the Meiji Emperor, the last emperor to be buried in Kyoto, was erected in Fushimi-Momoyama, near that of [[Emperor Kammu]], the first to rule in Kyoto, and the first to be buried there. Both subsequent emperors after Meiji have been buried in Tokyo, at the [[Musashi Imperial Graveyard]] in Hachiôji.<ref>Takashi Fujitani, ''Splendid Monarchy'', University of California Press (1996), 148-152.</ref>
==Graves in Okinawa==
==Graves in Okinawa==
Burial practices in Okinawa developed along a separate lineage from those of mainland Japan; though still closely tied to Buddhism, Okinawan graves and the practices surrounding them bear much more in common with customs from certain parts of southern China.
Burial practices in Okinawa developed along a separate lineage from those of mainland Japan; though still closely tied to Buddhism, Okinawan graves and the practices surrounding them bear much more in common with customs from certain parts of southern China.
Mound tombs remained quite common in Okinawa into the early modern period, and today it is quite standard among Okinawan people to have the whole family buried in a common family tomb. While Japanese families may also share a family tomb, with the cremated remains of family members being interred under a common tombstone, Okinawan tombs are small stone structures unto themselves, with several chambers under a single roof. When a family member passes away, their body is placed within the central chamber, and some time later the bones are washed in a ritual known as ''senkotsu'' (lit. "washing bones"), and placed in a ceramic or stone urn, which is then interred alongside the urns of other family members in one of the tomb's side chambers. Living family members gather and picnic in a small stone-paved area immediately in front of the tomb on ''[[shiimiisai]]'', a grave-cleaning festival related to the [[Qingming Festival]] observed in China.
Burial in pots laid in natural caves or under rock outcroppings was once standard, but was later replaced by more elaborate stone tombs. Stone tombs in the form of houses, called ''hafû baka'' ("roofed graves"), are one of two chief forms these take; the royal mausoleum of [[Tamaudun]] is the most prominent example of this style. The [[Ginowan-udun tomb]] in Sueyoshi Park, in [[Naha]], is a famous example of the other, particularly distinctive, Okinawan style of tomb, which is said to resemble a turtle shell. Such tombs are called ''kaami nu kuu baka'' ("tortoise shell graves").<ref>"Shuri ma~i" 首里ま～い. Pamphlet. Naha City Board of Education Cultural Properties Division 那覇市教育委員会文化財課, 1989.</ref> The practice of constructing tombs in this "tortoise-shell" style first spread to Okinawa from southeastern China in the 17th century, and became popular among the [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocrat]] elites, and then among the broader population by the end of the 18th century.<ref>Plaque at [[Izena dunchi tomb]], Shintoshin, Naha.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/33589085720/sizes/o/]</ref> This spread of Chinese-style tombs coincided with the spread of popularity of ''[[feng shui]]'', and with a sinification more broadly of many aspects of Ryukyuan culture in the 18th century.<ref name=akamine90>Akamine Mamoru, Lina Terrell (trans.), Robert Huey (ed.), ''The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia'', University of Hawaii Press (2017), 90-91.</ref>
Mound tombs remained quite common in Okinawa into the early modern period, and today it is quite standard among Okinawan people to have the whole family buried in a common family tomb. While Japanese families may also share a family tomb, with the cremated remains of family members being interred under a common tombstone, Okinawan tombs are small stone structures unto themselves, with several chambers under a single roof. When a family member passes away, their body is placed within the central chamber, and some time later the bones are washed in a ritual known as ''senkotsu'' (lit. "washing bones"), and placed in a ceramic or stone urn, which is then interred alongside the urns of other family members in one of the tomb's side chambers. Living family members gather and picnic in a small stone-paved area immediately in front of the tomb on ''[[shiimiisai]]'', a grave-cleaning festival related to the [[Qingming Festival]] observed in China. This small paved area may have been conceived of as a space for collecting and storing ''[[qi]]'', in accordance with ''feng shui'' philosophies.<ref name=akamine90/>
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