Changes

Chinese primarily sources of the mid-16th century identify the ''wakô'' problem at that time in particular as stemming chiefly from the activities of merchants and others in China, who hired or otherwise encouraged Japanese to be involved. Some scholarship suggests that from the very beginning of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in China ([[1368]]-[[1644]]), the anti-maritime policies of the [[Hongwu Emperor|first Ming emperor]] - forcing coastal communities to [[qianjie|move inland]], and trying to monopolize all maritime trade under the throne - were a chief ''cause'' of, rather than a response to, the proliferation of smugglers, who then became brigands or pirates.

Chinese primarily sources of the mid-16th century identify the ''wakô'' problem at that time in particular as stemming chiefly from the activities of merchants and others in China, who hired or otherwise encouraged Japanese to be involved. Some scholarship suggests that from the very beginning of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in China ([[1368]]-[[1644]]), the anti-maritime policies of the [[Hongwu Emperor|first Ming emperor]] - forcing coastal communities to [[qianjie|move inland]], and trying to monopolize all maritime trade under the throne - were a chief ''cause'' of, rather than a response to, the proliferation of smugglers, who then became brigands or pirates.

Though traditionally regarded as "brigands" or "pirates," many scholars today describe the ''wakô'' in broader, more complex terms. Though certainly operating on the fringes of the law, and in many cases resorting to violence, ''wakô'' represented a complex mix of adventurers, smugglers, traders, mercenaries, and so forth, more often engaging in violence for economic gain than out of a pure desire for violence or chaos.<ref name=smits40/>

Though traditionally regarded as "brigands" or "pirates," many scholars today describe the ''wakô'' in broader, more complex terms. Though certainly operating on the fringes of the law, and in many cases resorting to violence, ''wakô'' represented a complex mix of adventurers, smugglers, traders, mercenaries, and so forth, more often engaging in violence for economic gain than out of a pure desire for violence or chaos.<ref name=smits40/> Many of those based in the [[Inland Sea]] and in coastal areas around Kyushu lived on houseboats known as ''ebune'', housing a mixed community of merchants, families, adventurers of various sorts, the remnants of defeated warrior bands, fishermen, and others down on their luck. When they ''did'' engage in violence, however, ''wakô'' were known to not only fight with bow and sword, but also sometimes to use battering rams or other devices to punch holes in enemy vessels; it was also not unknown for ''wakô'' to ravage far inland, traveling on horseback.<ref name=smits41/>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', 41.</ref>

Only after the [[Korean Invasions]] of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] in the 1590s, in which organized samurai invasion forces were labeled by the Chinese and Koreans as ''wakô'', i.e. as pirates or brigands, it would seem, did the earlier history of the ''wakô'' come to be colored, in Chinese and Korean sources, by implications or assumptions that the ''wakô'' were somehow agents of a central Japanese authority. Though documents written in the 16th century generally identify Chinese as having been the source of encouragement for piratical activities, those written in the 17th century and later, especially the ''[[Ming shi]]'' ("Official History of the Ming Dynasty") generally implicate the Japanese authorities in organizing and backing the ''wakô'', or at the very least refusing to take action to curb ''wakô'' activities. In the 20th-21st centuries, scholarship and school textbooks, closely based upon these later 17th century sources, have come to link the ''wakô'', and the foreign relations policies of the Japanese authorities at the time, with transhistorical notions of the Japanese as militant and expansionist.

Only after the [[Korean Invasions]] of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] in the 1590s, in which organized samurai invasion forces were labeled by the Chinese and Koreans as ''wakô'', i.e. as pirates or brigands, it would seem, did the earlier history of the ''wakô'' come to be colored, in Chinese and Korean sources, by implications or assumptions that the ''wakô'' were somehow agents of a central Japanese authority. Though documents written in the 16th century generally identify Chinese as having been the source of encouragement for piratical activities, those written in the 17th century and later, especially the ''[[Ming shi]]'' ("Official History of the Ming Dynasty") generally implicate the Japanese authorities in organizing and backing the ''wakô'', or at the very least refusing to take action to curb ''wakô'' activities. In the 20th-21st centuries, scholarship and school textbooks, closely based upon these later 17th century sources, have come to link the ''wakô'', and the foreign relations policies of the Japanese authorities at the time, with transhistorical notions of the Japanese as militant and expansionist.

==Early Wakô==

==Early Wakô==

The earliest extant usage of the term "wakô" (K: ''waegu'') may be in a [[1223]] entry in the ''[[History of Goryeo]]'' (''Goryeosa''); piracy or brigand-like activity in the East China Sea of course dates to long before that, however.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', 37.</ref>

The earliest extant usage of the term "wakô" (K: ''waegu'') may be in a [[1223]] entry in the ''[[History of Goryeo]]'' (''Goryeosa''); piracy or brigand-like activity in the East China Sea of course dates to long before that, however.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', 37.</ref> The period from roughly [[1350]] to [[1420]] is considered the earlier peak period (''zenki'') of ''wakô'' activity.<ref name=smits41/>

During the reign of the first emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]], great efforts were made to establish coastal fortifications to defend against the so-called "Japanese pirates." However, raids and attacks on the Chinese coast at this time were led primarily not by Japanese, but by the Emperor's Chinese political rivals.<ref name=so209/> The [[Hongwu Emperor]] sought to restore relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], and to get the shogunate to take action to curb ''wakô'' attacks, but, perhaps in part due to the chaos and disunity of the ''[[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-chô]]'' period, the Emperor's efforts were unsuccessful. The Chinese Prime Minister [[Hu Weiyong]] was executed in [[1380]] for allegedly conspiring with the Japanese and with [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] loyalists to overthrow the Ming; as a result of the discovery of this conspiracy, efforts to restore relations with Japan were ended.<ref>So. p3.</ref>

During the reign of the first emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]], great efforts were made to establish coastal fortifications to defend against the so-called "Japanese pirates." However, raids and attacks on the Chinese coast at this time were led primarily not by Japanese, but by the Emperor's Chinese political rivals.<ref name=so209/> The [[Hongwu Emperor]] sought to restore relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], and to get the shogunate to take action to curb ''wakô'' attacks, but, perhaps in part due to the chaos and disunity of the ''[[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-chô]]'' period, the Emperor's efforts were unsuccessful. The Chinese Prime Minister [[Hu Weiyong]] was executed in [[1380]] for allegedly conspiring with the Japanese and with [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] loyalists to overthrow the Ming; as a result of the discovery of this conspiracy, efforts to restore relations with Japan were ended.<ref>So. p3.</ref>

==Early 16th Century==

==Early 16th Century==

Though relations between Ming [[China]] and the Ashikaga shogunate were quite good for a time, with merchants from both countries engaging in official trade, by the early 16th century, tensions arose between the two powers. The increasingly weak shogunate did not wield strong control throughout Japan, let alone overseas, and was unable to curb or halt the attacks by Japanese pirates, acting independently, upon the Chinese coast.<ref name=so204>So. p204.</ref> By the 1530s, Sengoku (i.e. civil war in many parts of Japan) was in full swing, the shogunate held little power, and relations with China had fully soured.

Scholars identify a period from roughly [[1470]] to [[1600]] as the "latter period" (J: ''kôki'') of ''wakô'' activity.<ref name=smits41/> Though relations between Ming [[China]] and the Ashikaga shogunate were quite good for a time, with merchants from both countries engaging in official trade, by the early 16th century, tensions arose between the two powers. The increasingly weak shogunate did not wield strong control throughout Japan, let alone overseas, and was unable to curb or halt the attacks by Japanese pirates, acting independently, upon the Chinese coast.<ref name=so204>So. p204.</ref> By the 1530s, Sengoku (i.e. civil war in many parts of Japan) was in full swing, the shogunate held little power, and relations with China had fully soured.

Roughly 1,200 junks, large and small, could be found along the China coast on any given day around this time. Most were simple traders, armed to defend themselves where the Ming authorities wouldn't, and considered "smugglers" under Ming law. Others made a living as armed arbiters, helping to resolve disputes and collect debts where the Ming authorities failed to intervene.<ref>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 163.</ref>

Roughly 1,200 junks, large and small, could be found along the China coast on any given day around this time. Most were simple traders, armed to defend themselves where the Ming authorities wouldn't, and considered "smugglers" under Ming law. Others made a living as armed arbiters, helping to resolve disputes and collect debts where the Ming authorities failed to intervene.<ref>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 163.</ref>