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The Ryûkyû Kingdom did not, however, possess any true control over the Amami Islands at that time, and as late as the 16th century was engaged in military efforts to conquer these islands; as Ryûkyû moved north, and the [[Shimazu clan]] samurai of [[Satsuma province|Satsuma]] moved south, both seeking to extend their control into the Amamis, Ryûkyû and Satsuma clashed on a number of occasions. One such clash took place in [[1493]]; Amami Ôshima formally submitted to Ryûkyû's authority in [[1571]]. That same year, the Shimazu attacked the island as part of efforts to seize control over all of Ryûkyû.

The Ryûkyû Kingdom did not, however, possess any true control over the Amami Islands at that time, and as late as the 16th century was engaged in military efforts to conquer these islands; as Ryûkyû moved north, and the [[Shimazu clan]] samurai of [[Satsuma province|Satsuma]] moved south, both seeking to extend their control into the Amamis, Ryûkyû and Satsuma clashed on a number of occasions. One such clash took place in [[1493]]; Amami Ôshima formally submitted to Ryûkyû's authority in [[1571]]. That same year, the Shimazu attacked the island as part of efforts to seize control over all of Ryûkyû.

Satsuma succeeded in conquering the Amamis and Okinawa in 1609. Following its defeat, the Ryûkyû Kingdom was permitted to remain intact and quasi-independent. Okinawa and all the [[Sakishima Islands|islands to the south]] remained under the control of the kingdom, which paid taxes to Satsuma and was in certain other respects subordinated to Satsuma's control. The Amamis, meanwhile, were wholly incorporated into Satsuma's territory. Satsuma undertook land surveys in [[1621]], assessing the agricultural productivity of the land in order to calculate taxation rates. The main agricultural products on the islands traditionally included rice, [[Satsumaimo]] (sweet potato), [[sugar]] cane, papaya, banana, and pineapple. ''[[Sotetsu]]'' (cycad) also grows naturally on the island. The Amamis are also known for their textiles, including especially Amami ''[[tsumugi]]'' (pongee). This ''tsumugi'', along with sugar, were the chief goods claimed by Satsuma in taxes.

Satsuma succeeded in conquering the Amamis and Okinawa in 1609. Following its defeat, the Ryûkyû Kingdom was permitted to remain intact and quasi-independent. Okinawa and all the [[Sakishima Islands|islands to the south]] remained under the control of the kingdom, which paid taxes to Satsuma and was in certain other respects subordinated to Satsuma's control. The Amamis, meanwhile, were wholly incorporated into Satsuma's territory. Satsuma undertook land surveys in [[1621]], assessing the agricultural productivity of the land in order to calculate taxation rates. The Amamis were assessed at just over 51,756 ''[[koku]]''.<ref>''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû'' 1, Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510.</ref> The main agricultural products on the islands traditionally included rice, [[Satsumaimo]] (sweet potato), [[sugar]] cane, papaya, banana, and pineapple. ''[[Sotetsu]]'' (cycad) also grows naturally on the island. The Amamis are also known for their textiles, including especially Amami ''[[tsumugi]]'' (pongee). This ''tsumugi'', along with sugar, were the chief goods claimed by Satsuma in taxes.

Over the course of the period, Satsuma emphasized the production of sugar on the islands, enacting various policies aimed at increasing the amount of sugar, a very lucrative product, it could extract from Amami. Islanders were required from [[1745]] onwards to pay their taxes in sugar instead of rice, a policy which effectively forced many, if not most, islanders to switch at least some of their time, effort, and land from growing rice and other food to subsist on, to growing and refining sugar cane. This resulted in severe difficulties for many families, who struggled at times to have enough to eat; in [[1755]], 3,000 people died of famine on Tokunoshima. Later, beginning in [[1787]], Satsuma put into place a system in which islanders could trade sugar for rice and other goods they needed. Though production was done entirely by islanders, who were not deprived of their land nor entered into slavery or indentured servitude, the extent of Satsuma's focus in these islands on maximizing outputs of a single product has led some historians to describe the system as "a structure of colonial extraction," drawing comparisons to British and American sugar plantation operations in the Caribbean and [[Japanese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii]] respectively.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 95-96.</ref>

Over the course of the period, Satsuma emphasized the production of sugar on the islands, enacting various policies aimed at increasing the amount of sugar, a very lucrative product, it could extract from Amami. Islanders were required from [[1745]] onwards to pay their taxes in sugar instead of rice, a policy which effectively forced many, if not most, islanders to switch at least some of their time, effort, and land from growing rice and other food to subsist on, to growing and refining sugar cane. This resulted in severe difficulties for many families, who struggled at times to have enough to eat; in [[1755]], 3,000 people died of famine on Tokunoshima. Later, beginning in [[1787]], Satsuma put into place a system in which islanders could trade sugar for rice and other goods they needed. Though production was done entirely by islanders, who were not deprived of their land nor entered into slavery or indentured servitude, the extent of Satsuma's focus in these islands on maximizing outputs of a single product has led some historians to describe the system as "a structure of colonial extraction," drawing comparisons to British and American sugar plantation operations in the Caribbean and [[Japanese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii]] respectively.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 95-96.</ref>