Changes

The Imperial Japanese Army emerged from the implementation of a new system of [[military conscription]] in [[1872]]-[[1873]], following the abolition of the samurai class in [[1871]]. This was the first citizen army in Japan, and the first in service of the modern Japanese nation-state.<ref>Norman, E.H. ''Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription''. New York: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1945. pp41-42, 49.</ref> It was originally based chiefly on a French model, but was reorganized in [[1878]] with inspiration from Prussian practices. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] was established concurrently, based largely on the model of the British Royal Navy.<ref>Conrad Schirokauer, David Lurie, and Suzanne Gay, ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 192.</ref>

The Imperial Japanese Army emerged from the implementation of a new system of [[military conscription]] in [[1872]]-[[1873]], following the abolition of the samurai class in [[1871]]. This was the first citizen army in Japan, and the first in service of the modern Japanese nation-state.<ref>Norman, E.H. ''Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription''. New York: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1945. pp41-42, 49.</ref> It was originally based chiefly on a French model, but was reorganized in [[1878]] with inspiration from Prussian practices. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] was established concurrently, based largely on the model of the British Royal Navy.<ref>Conrad Schirokauer, David Lurie, and Suzanne Gay, ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 192.</ref>

*Abolition of Han. As part of the dismantling of the feudal system, the central government took control of most of the country's [[castles]]. Many were demolished at this time. Some were turned over to governmental or military purposes. Many former ''daimyô'' clans relocated to secondary residences, turning these into primary family mansions; the [[Hotta mansion]] which survives in [[Sakura (city)|Sakura]], [[Chiba prefecture]], and the Shimazu clan's Iso mansion at [[Sengan'en]] in [[Kagoshima]] are examples of this. Many [[daimyo yashiki|domain mansions]] in [[Edo]], [[Kyoto]], and [[Osaka]], though not seized by the government, were abandoned or sold. The existence of so many large compounds, now able to be turned over to other purposes, proved a boon to the development of these modern cities, as many were converted into public schools, government buildings, public parks, and the like.

The feudal domains (''[[han]]'') were [[abolition of the han|abolished]] in 1871, and the [[provinces of Japan|provinces]] reorganized into [[prefectures of Japan|prefectures]]; though the precise names and borders of the prefectures fluctuated for some time, by the late 1880s they had settled down into the 47 prefectures which remain today. As the former ''daimyô'' gave back their land to the Emperor, the central government also took control of most of the country's [[castles]]. Many were demolished at this time. Some were turned over to governmental or military purposes. Many former ''daimyô'' clans relocated to secondary residences, turning these into primary family mansions; the [[Hotta mansion]] which survives in [[Sakura (city)|Sakura]], [[Chiba prefecture]], and the Shimazu clan's Iso mansion at [[Sengan'en]] in [[Kagoshima]] are examples of this. Many [[daimyo yashiki|domain mansions]] in [[Edo]], [[Kyoto]], and [[Osaka]], though not seized by the government, were abandoned or sold. The existence of so many large compounds, now able to be turned over to other purposes, proved a boon to the development of these modern cities, as many were converted into public schools, government buildings, public parks, and the like.

*Genro, etc.

*Genro, etc.

*Iwakura Embassy

*Iwakura Embassy

*Seikanron

 

*Satsuma Rebellion & other shizoku rebellions

*The Emperor declared in [[1881]] that he would establish a national legislature in 1889. That same year, he received [[King Kalakaua]] of Hawaii, and Princes Albert and George of the United Kingdom as formal state guests, the first foreign royals to visit Japan in such a capacity. Former US President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] had visited two years earlier, in [[1879]], and helped advise the Emperor both in building a new, modern, democratic country, and also in diplomatic negotiations with China, successfully avoiding war at that time over control of [[Ryukyu Islands|Okinawa]] and [[Taiwan]]. These tensions, sparked by an [[1871]] [[Taiwan Incident of 1871|incident on Taiwan]], led to [[Taiwan Expedition of 1874|the deployment of Japanese troops to Taiwan]] in [[1874]], and ultimately to Japan unilaterally abolishing the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexing its territory as [[Okinawa prefecture]], over Beijing's objections, in 1879. Tensions over Taiwan (and influence in [[Colonial Korea|Korea]]) were allayed for a time, but would later come to [[Sino-Japanese War|war with China]] in [[1894]]-[[1895]]; Japanese victory in that war made Taiwan a Japanese colony.

 

The abolition of the domains had numerous political repercussions, but in terms of foreign relations, one of the most major was that this also severed the traditional relationship between the [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korean royal court, and the [[So clan|Sô]] samurai clan of [[Tsushima han|Tsushima]]. For centuries, the Korean king had considered the Sô his vassal, and all formal diplomatic and trade relations between Korea and Japan were handled via the Sô. The toppling of the Tokugawa order, removing the Sô from their domain of Tsushima, also removed them, unilaterally, from their vassalage to the Korean king. The Korean court protested against this by refusing to engage in formal relations with the Meiji government. Japanese frustrations at attempting to re-establish relations culminated in a [[1873]] debate known as the ''[[Seikanron]]'' (lit. "debate on invading Korea"). [[Saigo Takamori|Saigô Takamori]], among others, took a militarist view, and sought to launch a punitive mission, militarily invading the peninsula in order to punish the Koreans for daring to be so stubborn. This debate ultimately ended with the anti-invasion faction winning out, and Saigô angrily quitting the government, to return to [[Kagoshima]], where he would later lead a rebellion against the very same government he had helped to establish.

 

Saigô's [[1877]] [[Satsuma Rebellion]] was only one of a number of [[shizoku rebellions|''shizoku'' rebellions]] which took place in the mid-1870s, but it was the largest, and ultimately the most decisive. Saigô led some 15,000 former samurai (''[[shizoku]]'') in violently protesting the loss of their samurai privileges (chiefly [[stipends]]), among other causes.<ref>[[Mark Ravina]], ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 206-207.</ref> Their defeat by the Imperial Japanese Army marked the end of any major violent opposition to the new political order, mirroring in a sense the [[1615]] [[siege of Osaka]], and/or [[1637]]-[[1638]] [[Shimabara Rebellion]], which similarly marked the last serious armed opposition to Tokugawa hegemony, some 250 years earlier.

 

 

The Emperor declared in [[1881]] that he would establish a national legislature in 1889. That same year, he received [[King Kalakaua]] of Hawaii, and Princes Albert and George of the United Kingdom as formal state guests, the first foreign royals to visit Japan in such a capacity. Through meetings with these and other heads of state, Meiji Japan began actively developing diplomatic ties with other countries. Before long, numerous countries were maintaining embassies or delegations in [[Yokohama]] or Tokyo.

 

Former US President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] had visited two years prior to the Hawaiian and British visitors, in [[1879]], and helped advise the Emperor both in building a new, modern, democratic country, and also in diplomatic negotiations with China, successfully avoiding war at that time over control of [[Ryukyu Islands|Okinawa]] and [[Taiwan]]. These tensions, sparked by an [[1871]] [[Taiwan Incident of 1871|incident on Taiwan]], led to [[Taiwan Expedition of 1874|the deployment of Japanese troops to Taiwan]] in [[1874]], and ultimately to Japan unilaterally abolishing the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexing its territory as [[Okinawa prefecture]], over Beijing's objections, in 1879. Tensions over Taiwan (and influence in [[Colonial Korea|Korea]]) were allayed for a time, but would later come to [[Sino-Japanese War|war with China]] in [[1894]]-[[1895]]; Japanese victory in that war made Taiwan a Japanese colony.

[[File:Kenpohapu-chikanobu.jpg|center|750px|thumb|An ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' woodblock print triptych by [[Toyohara Chikanobu]] depicting the [[promulgation of the Meiji Constitution]] in a formal ceremony which took place in the Throne Room of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]].]]

[[File:Kenpohapu-chikanobu.jpg|center|750px|thumb|An ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' woodblock print triptych by [[Toyohara Chikanobu]] depicting the [[promulgation of the Meiji Constitution]] in a formal ceremony which took place in the Throne Room of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]].]]

==Society==

==Society==

The [[samurai]] class was abolished in 187X, and the system of feudal domains (''han'') in [[1871]]. The wearing of swords in public was [[Haito edict|banned]] in [[1876]]. Though all were now meant to be relatively equal, as Imperial subjects, no longer divided into Confucian classes of merchants, peasants, and artisans, a new aristocracy was formed to include the former ''daimyô'', court nobles, and others.  

The [[samurai]] class was abolished along with the system of feudal domains (''han'') in [[1871]]. The wearing of swords in public was [[Haito edict|banned]] in [[1876]]. Though all were now meant to be relatively equal, as Imperial subjects, no longer divided into Confucian classes of merchants, peasants, and artisans, a new aristocracy was formed to include the former ''daimyô'', court nobles, and others.  

The government implemented a system of [[Meiji education|nationwide public education]] which gradually came into fruition over the course of the period. A national curriculum was aimed at suppressing regional difference and creating a unified, national, "Japanese" culture. The [[Ministry of Education]] began efforts in [[1872]] to establish schools across the country; in addition to this, a significant portion of the education budget in the first decades of the Meiji period was devoted to bringing in foreign teachers, and to funding students to study overseas. Building schools, training and hiring (native Japanese) teachers, and so forth took some time, and as late as [[1902]], the country was still only partially on the way to the goals that had been set in 1872, in terms of the number of schools in operation. As for the content and character of the national curriculum, [[1890]] was a turning point in this as in many things. The [[Imperial Rescript on Education]] issued that year is a short document which declared a set of nationalist core principles, and which served from that point forward as the foundation of a curriculum of moral education emphasizing filial piety, nationalist zeal or patriotism, reverence for the Emperor, and personal sacrifice for the sake of the nation.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, 187-188.</ref>

The government implemented a system of [[Meiji education|nationwide public education]] which gradually came into fruition over the course of the period. A national curriculum was aimed at suppressing regional difference and creating a unified, national, "Japanese" culture. The [[Ministry of Education]] began efforts in [[1872]] to establish schools across the country; in addition to this, a significant portion of the education budget in the first decades of the Meiji period was devoted to bringing in foreign teachers, and to funding students to study overseas. Building schools, training and hiring (native Japanese) teachers, and so forth took some time, and as late as [[1902]], the country was still only partially on the way to the goals that had been set in 1872, in terms of the number of schools in operation. As for the content and character of the national curriculum, [[1890]] was a turning point in this as in many things. The [[Imperial Rescript on Education]] issued that year is a short document which declared a set of nationalist core principles, and which served from that point forward as the foundation of a curriculum of moral education emphasizing filial piety, nationalist zeal or patriotism, reverence for the Emperor, and personal sacrifice for the sake of the nation.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, 187-188.</ref>

==Culture==

==Culture==

Through participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]] in the 1880s, the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting), the novel & other forms of "modern" literature, and [[shinpa|new forms of theatre]], were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], [[shamisen]] music, [[nihon buyo|Japanese dance]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions." Others, such as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', simply continued along, changing and developing but not being re-conceptualized entirely. Artists such as [[Kobayashi Kiyochika]] designed ''ukiyo-e'' propaganda prints which served to report on national events, such as the promulgation of the Constitution, and the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. By the end of the period, however, ''ukiyo-e'' had fallen away, and had been replaced by modern print forms such as ''[[shin hanga]]'' ("new prints") and ''[[sosaku hanga|sôsaku hanga]]'' ("creative prints"). Photography, postcards, newspapers, and a variety of other modern arts & cultural forms also developed and became widespread in the Meiji period.

Through participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]] in the 1880s, the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting), the novel & other forms of "modern" literature, and [[shinpa|new forms of theatre]], were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], [[shamisen]] music, [[nihon buyo|Japanese dance]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions." Others, such as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', simply continued along, changing and developing but not being re-conceptualized entirely. Artists such as [[Kobayashi Kiyochika]] designed ''ukiyo-e'' propaganda prints which served to report on national events, such as the promulgation of the Constitution, and the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. By the end of the period, however, ''ukiyo-e'' had fallen away, and had been replaced by modern print forms such as ''[[shin hanga]]'' ("new prints") and ''[[sosaku hanga|sôsaku hanga]]'' ("creative prints"). Photography, postcards, newspapers, and a variety of other modern arts & cultural forms also developed and became widespread in the Meiji period.

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>

[[State Shinto]] was also developed, along with a complex set of rituals, tradition, and national ideology surrounding the Emperor. However, like much else in this period, this developed over time. Though many of the earliest Meiji period documents express adulation of the emperor, continuing the ''[[sonno|sonnô]] [[joi|jôi]]'' and ''[[kokugaku]]'' rhetoric which preceded them, it was only after the [[1895]] [[Sino-Japanese War|victory over the Chinese]] that the ultranationalist forms of "emperor-worship" emblematic of the 1930s-1940s began to settle into place.<ref>David Lu, ''Japan: A Documentary History'', M.E. Sharpe (1997), 306.</ref> Shinto was divided into State Shinto, with hierarchies of national shrines being created; Sect Shinto, in which networks of related shrines were counted as separate from the national hierarchies; and local folk practices. Numerous shrines were formally designated as chief shrine for their prefecture, and shrines were also established in the colonies. [[Buddhism]] was at the same time very briefly but very powerfully suppressed, in a policy known as ''[[haibutsu kishaku]]''. Where Buddhism and Shinto had previously been closely intertwined, Buddhism was now extricated from shrines, to make them more purely Shinto sites. A great many temples were closed in [[1869]]-[[1870]] or so, and a great many Buddhist artworks, icons, and artifacts were either sold to foreign collectors or were destroyed.

[[State Shinto]] was also developed, along with a complex set of rituals, tradition, and national ideology surrounding the Emperor. However, like much else in this period, this developed over time. Though many of the earliest Meiji period documents express adulation of the emperor, continuing the ''[[sonno|sonnô]] [[joi|jôi]]'' and ''[[kokugaku]]'' rhetoric which preceded them, it was only after the [[1895]] [[Sino-Japanese War|victory over the Chinese]] that the ultranationalist forms of "emperor-worship" emblematic of the 1930s-1940s began to settle into place.<ref>David Lu, ''Japan: A Documentary History'', M.E. Sharpe (1997), 306.</ref> Shinto was divided into State Shinto, with hierarchies of national shrines being created; Sect Shinto, in which networks of related shrines were counted as separate from the national hierarchies; and local folk practices. Numerous shrines were formally designated as chief shrine for their prefecture, and shrines were also established in the colonies. [[Buddhism]] was at the same time very briefly but very powerfully suppressed, in a policy known as ''[[haibutsu kishaku]]''. Where Buddhism and Shinto had previously been closely intertwined, Buddhism was now extricated from shrines, to make them more purely Shinto sites. A great many temples were closed in [[1869]]-[[1870]] or so, and a great many Buddhist artworks, icons, and artifacts were either sold to foreign collectors or were destroyed.

The massive cultural and societal shifts into modernity also brought significant linguistic developments. Firstly, the shift from [[Printing and Publishing|woodblock printing]] to movable type meant a standardization of the characters ([[kana]] and [[kanji]]). Where woodblock printing previously emulated handwriting, in which each character might be abbreviated, calligraphically, in a number of ways, modern type (along with modern public education) now formalized both the ''kana'' and ''kanji'' into the forms we know today.<ref>Note, however, that the simplification of characters did not occur until after World War II. What are known today as ''kyûjitai'' (lit. "old character forms"), such as 國、禮、and 體, were still standard through the Meiji period, and had not yet been formally, officially, replaced by the ''shinjitai'' ("new character forms") 国、礼、and 体.</ref> Second, numerous new terms were coined and incorporated into the language, to refer to modern technologies, Western cultural and intellectual concepts, and modern political and social structures. The term ''tetsudô'' (鉄道, lit. "iron road") was coined, for example, to refer to [[railroads]], and the terms ''jitensha'' (自転車, "self turning vehicle") and ''denwa'' (電話, "electric talk") for bicycles and telephone respectively. New words were coined to refer to "philosophy" (哲学, ''tetsugaku''), "literature" (文学, ''bungaku''), "economics" (経済, ''keizai''), and "politics" (政治, ''seiji''), as understood in their particular modern/Western forms. The concept of "art," that is, high art, especially as divided into "visual arts" and "performing arts," similarly had not previously existed in Japan, and so the terms ''bijutsu'' 美術 and ''geijutsu'' 芸術 were coined. Meanwhile, numerous new fields only first emerging in the West as well at that time, such as anthropology (人類学, ''jinruigaku''), needed to be termed in Japanese. New political structures and concepts such as the "citizen" (国民, ''kokumin''), the Imperial subject (皇民, ''kômin''), and the Nation/State (国家, ''kokka''), as well as "society" (社会, ''shakai''), "freedom" or "liberty" (自由, ''jiyû''), and "people's rights" (民権, ''minken''), similarly came into being at this time. A great many of these terms were then adopted into [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  

The massive cultural and societal shifts into modernity also brought significant linguistic developments. Firstly, the shift from [[Printing and Publishing|woodblock printing]] to movable type meant a standardization of the characters ([[kana]] and [[kanji]]). Where woodblock printing previously emulated handwriting, in which each character might be abbreviated, calligraphically, in a number of ways, modern type (along with modern public education) now formalized both the ''kana'' and ''kanji'' into the forms we know today.<ref>Note, however, that the simplification of characters did not occur until after World War II. What are known today as ''kyûjitai'' (lit. "old character forms"), such as 國、禮、and 體, were still standard through the Meiji period, and had not yet been formally, officially, replaced by the ''shinjitai'' ("new character forms") 国、礼、and 体.</ref> Second, numerous new terms were coined and incorporated into the language, to refer to modern technologies, Western cultural and intellectual concepts, and modern political and social structures. The term ''tetsudô'' (鉄道, lit. "iron road") was coined, for example, to refer to [[railroads]], and the terms ''jitensha'' (自転車, "self turning vehicle") and ''denwa'' (電話, "electric talk") for bicycles and telephone respectively. New words were coined to refer to "philosophy" (哲学, ''tetsugaku''), "literature" (文学, ''bungaku''), "economics" (経済, ''keizai''), and "politics" (政治, ''seiji''), as understood in their particular modern/Western forms. The concept of "art," that is, high art, especially as divided into "visual arts" and "performing arts," similarly had not previously existed in Japan, and so the terms ''bijutsu'' 美術 and ''geijutsu'' 芸術 were coined. Meanwhile, numerous new fields only first emerging in the West as well at that time, such as anthropology (人類学, ''jinruigaku''), needed to be termed in Japanese. New political structures and concepts such as the "citizen" (国民, ''kokumin''), the Imperial subject (皇民, ''kômin''), and the Nation/State (国家, ''[[kokka]]''), as well as "society" (社会, ''shakai''), "freedom" or "liberty" (自由, ''jiyû''), and "people's rights" (民権, ''minken''), similarly came into being at this time. A great many of these terms were then adopted into [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  

History was also reconceptualized at this time, as Meiji discourse constructed a "national" history, one in which "Japan" had always existed as a single unit under an unbroken line of Emperors, and in which the Tokugawa period was repressive and backwards, and the Meiji period one of progress and modernity. In the course of writing this history, numerous terms were either coined anew, or appropriated from the Chinese classics, and applied retroactively, anachronistically, to the past. It was in these histories that the feudal domains of the Edo period were first called ''[[han]]'',<ref>Mark Ravina, ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 28.</ref> that the emperors were for the first time invariably called ''tennô''<ref>In actual historical usage, the term ''tennô'' fell in and out of usage over the centuries.; Shillony, 69-71.</ref>, and that the term ''bakufu'' (lit. "tent government") was adopted as the chief, standard term for the three [[bakufu|shogunates]].<ref>Watanabe Hiroshi, Luke Roberts (trans.), "About Some Japanese Historical Terms," ''Sino-Japanese Studies'' 10:2 (1998), 32-35.</ref>  

History was also reconceptualized at this time, as Meiji discourse constructed a "national" history, one in which "Japan" had always existed as a single unit under an unbroken line of Emperors, and in which the Tokugawa period was repressive and backwards, and the Meiji period one of progress and modernity. In the course of writing this history, numerous terms were either coined anew, or appropriated from the Chinese classics, and applied retroactively, anachronistically, to the past. It was in these histories that the feudal domains of the Edo period were first called ''[[han]]'',<ref>Mark Ravina, ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 28.</ref> that the emperors were for the first time invariably called ''tennô''<ref>In actual historical usage, the term ''tennô'' fell in and out of usage over the centuries.; Shillony, 69-71.</ref>, and that the term ''bakufu'' (lit. "tent government") was adopted as the chief, standard term for the three [[bakufu|shogunates]].<ref>Watanabe Hiroshi, Luke Roberts (trans.), "About Some Japanese Historical Terms," ''Sino-Japanese Studies'' 10:2 (1998), 32-35.</ref>