Changes

The period, which began with the overthrow of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] and establishment of a new [[Meiji government|Imperial government]] in the [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868, ended with the death of the [[Meiji Emperor]] in 1912, marking the beginning of the Taishô period, under his successor, the Taishô Emperor.

The period, which began with the overthrow of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] and establishment of a new [[Meiji government|Imperial government]] in the [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868, ended with the death of the [[Meiji Emperor]] in 1912, marking the beginning of the Taishô period, under his successor, the Taishô Emperor.

==Politics==

==Politics==

That said, though the history of this period is often, necessarily, simplified, the Meiji government did not, in fact, have a set plan from the beginning, which they then smoothly laid out step-by-step, addressing all the key problems in good order and good time. Quite to the contrary, during that time from 1868 until the promulgation of the Constitution in 1889, things were quite unstable. There was much disagreement within the government, and without. The Restoration could have fallen apart, or gone in a dramatically different direction, at any of numerous points. One such threat came from [[shizoku rebellions|violent rebellions]] by former samurai (''[[shizoku]]'') who rose up against the government in [[Akizuki Rebellion|Fukuoka]], [[Shinpuren Rebellion|Kumamoto]], [[Hagi Rebellion|Hagi]], and [[Satsuma Rebellion|Kagoshima]] in the 1870s. These rebellions were mostly spurred by the dismantling of samurai privileges, and their successful suppression by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] was an important step in the cementing of the new government's authority.

That said, though the history of this period is often, necessarily, simplified, the Meiji government did not, in fact, have a set plan from the beginning, which they then smoothly laid out step-by-step, addressing all the key problems in good order and good time. Quite to the contrary, during that time from 1868 until the promulgation of the Constitution in 1889, things were quite unstable. There was much disagreement within the government, and without. The Restoration could have fallen apart, or gone in a dramatically different direction, at any of numerous points. One such threat came from [[shizoku rebellions|violent rebellions]] by former samurai (''[[shizoku]]'') who rose up against the government in [[Akizuki Rebellion|Fukuoka]], [[Shinpuren Rebellion|Kumamoto]], [[Hagi Rebellion|Hagi]], and [[Satsuma Rebellion|Kagoshima]] in the 1870s. These rebellions were mostly spurred by the dismantling of samurai privileges, and their successful suppression by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] was an important step in the cementing of the new government's authority.

The Imperial Japanese Army emerged from the implementation of a new system of [[military conscription]] in [[1872]]-[[1873]], following the abolition of the samurai class in [[1871]]. This was the first citizen army in Japan, and the first in service of the modern Japanese nation-state.<ref>Norman, E.H. ''Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription''. New York: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1945. pp41-42, 49.</ref> The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] was established concurrently.

The Imperial Japanese Army emerged from the implementation of a new system of [[military conscription]] in [[1872]]-[[1873]], following the abolition of the samurai class in [[1871]]. This was the first citizen army in Japan, and the first in service of the modern Japanese nation-state.<ref>Norman, E.H. ''Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription''. New York: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1945. pp41-42, 49.</ref> It was originally based chiefly on a French model, but was reorganized in [[1878]] with inspiration from Prussian practices. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] was established concurrently, based largely on the model of the British Royal Navy.<ref>Conrad Schirokauer, David Lurie, and Suzanne Gay, ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 192.</ref>

*Abolition of Han. As part of the dismantling of the feudal system, the central government took control of most of the country's [[castles]]. Many were demolished at this time. Some were turned over to governmental or military purposes. Many former ''daimyô'' clans relocated to secondary residences, turning these into primary family mansions; the [[Hotta mansion]] which survives in [[Sakura (city)|Sakura]], [[Chiba prefecture]], and the Shimazu clan's Iso mansion at [[Sengan'en]] in [[Kagoshima]] are examples of this. Many [[daimyo yashiki|domain mansions]] in [[Edo]], [[Kyoto]], and [[Osaka]], though not seized by the government, were abandoned or sold. The existence of so many large compounds, now able to be turned over to other purposes, proved a boon to the development of these modern cities, as many were converted into public schools, government buildings, public parks, and the like.

*Abolition of Han. As part of the dismantling of the feudal system, the central government took control of most of the country's [[castles]]. Many were demolished at this time. Some were turned over to governmental or military purposes. Many former ''daimyô'' clans relocated to secondary residences, turning these into primary family mansions; the [[Hotta mansion]] which survives in [[Sakura (city)|Sakura]], [[Chiba prefecture]], and the Shimazu clan's Iso mansion at [[Sengan'en]] in [[Kagoshima]] are examples of this. Many [[daimyo yashiki|domain mansions]] in [[Edo]], [[Kyoto]], and [[Osaka]], though not seized by the government, were abandoned or sold. The existence of so many large compounds, now able to be turned over to other purposes, proved a boon to the development of these modern cities, as many were converted into public schools, government buildings, public parks, and the like.

*Seikanron

*Seikanron

*Satsuma Rebellion & other shizoku rebellions

*Satsuma Rebellion & other shizoku rebellions

*The Emperor declared in [[1881]] that he would establish a national legislature in 1889. That same year, he received [[King Kalakaua]] of Hawaii, and Princes Albert and George of the United Kingdom as formal state guests, the first foreign royals to visit Japan in such a capacity.

*The Emperor declared in [[1881]] that he would establish a national legislature in 1889. That same year, he received [[King Kalakaua]] of Hawaii, and Princes Albert and George of the United Kingdom as formal state guests, the first foreign royals to visit Japan in such a capacity. Former US President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] had visited two years earlier, in [[1879]], and helped advise the Emperor both in building a new, modern, democratic country, and also in diplomatic negotiations with China, successfully avoiding war at that time over control of [[Ryukyu Islands|Okinawa]] and [[Taiwan]]. These tensions, sparked by an [[1871]] [[Taiwan Incident of 1871|incident on Taiwan]], led to [[Taiwan Expedition of 1874|the deployment of Japanese troops to Taiwan]] in [[1874]], and ultimately to Japan unilaterally abolishing the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexing its territory as [[Okinawa prefecture]], over Beijing's objections, in 1879. Tensions over Taiwan (and influence in [[Colonial Korea|Korea]]) were allayed for a time, but would later come to [[Sino-Japanese War|war with China]] in [[1894]]-[[1895]]; Japanese victory in that war made Taiwan a Japanese colony.

*Constitution

 

[[File:Kenpohapu-chikanobu.jpg|center|750px|thumb|An ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' woodblock print triptych by [[Toyohara Chikanobu]] depicting the [[promulgation of the Meiji Constitution]] in a formal ceremony which took place in the Throne Room of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]].]]

Japan also began along the path of imperialism in the Meiji period, annexing [[Ezo]] ([[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]]) in [[1869]], the [[Ryukyu shobun|Ryûkyû Islands]] in [[1879]], [[Taiwan]] in [[1895]], and [[Colonial Korea|Korea]] in [[1905]]-[[1910]].

After much discussion and debate, the first [[Meiji Constitution|Japanese Constitution]] was [[Promulgation of the Meiji Constitution|promulgated]] on February 11, 1889. The promulgation was accompanied by extensive ceremonies, beginning with very private rites performed by the Emperor alone deep within the palace, ostensibly continuing an ancient tradition, followed by a modern/Western-style political ceremony in which the Constitution was formally promulgated with many government officials and journalists in attendance; this was then followed in turn by a public procession and celebration in the streets of Tokyo. All three combined, as reported in newspapers, participated in by the public, and otherwise noted as a national holiday and significant historical moment, have been described as "Japan's first modern national ceremony." Fashioned after modern state ceremonies in the West, this displayed to the Japanese people and the world that Japan was a modern country, and it served as precedent and model for many national ceremonies later in the Meiji period, all the way down to the 1940s.<ref>Takashi Fujitani, ''Splendid Monarchy'', University of California Press (1996), 107-111.</ref>

 

Under this Constitution, which remained in force until 1945, the Emperor wielded ultimate sovereignty, and all political power and land ownership stemmed from him. The Emperor had the power to declare war, conclude treaties, make policy in a wide range of fields, to dissolve the legislature and call for new elections, and to veto the decisions of the legislature at his discretion. The Privy Council and Cabinet ministers, a group which included many ''[[genro|genrô]]'' ("senior statesmen," chiefly the architects of the Restoration and of the Constitution), were thus able to rule as oligarchs, making many decisions themselves, and simply seeking the Emperor's official approval. The only power reserved exclusively to the legislature was the power to approve the annual government budget; however, even this power was weakened by stipulations that if the legislature failed to approve a new budget, the current year's budget would simply be re-adopted for the next year.<ref name=schiro180>Schirokauer, et al, 180. </ref> The [[Imperial family]] themselves were not bound or governed by the terms of the Constitution, but rather by a separate document, the [[Imperial House Law]].<ref>Fujitani, 109.</ref>

 

Based on borrowings from Prussian, British, and US forms of government, the Constitution created a national imperial government with the Emperor at the top, and a bicameral legislature called the [[Imperial Diet]]. The Upper House, the House of Peers, consisted of members of the newly formed [[kazoku|hereditary aristocracy]], most of whom were former ''daimyô'' or [[kuge|court nobles]]. The Lower House, the House of Representatives, was popularly elected, with the first elections being held in [[1890]]. Initially, however, as in many Western countries, suffrage was limited to wealthy landowners, who it was believed could be trusted to be well-informed enough, politically engaged enough, to vote responsibly. In the first set of elections, some 450,000 men, or 1.1% of the total Japanese population, were eligible to vote. Universal male suffrage would not be extended in Japan until 1925, and women's suffrage not until 1946.<ref name=schiro180/>

 

For the first five years or so, The ''[[Jiyuto|Jiyûtô]]'' ("Freedom Party") and ''[[Kaishinto|Kaishintô]]'' ("Progressive Party"), both of which were opposed to the basic structure of the government, won the majority of seats in the Diet time and again. Members of the ''[[genro|genrô]]'' ("senior statesmen," incl. some of the architects of the Restoration, and of the Constitution), or other arms of the Imperial institution had to intervene a number of times in order to end deadlocked situations, and to get a government budget passed. The Diet was dissolved, and new elections called, several times. As in many other aspects of Meiji politics and culture, the Japanese victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895 brought a shift towards greater patriotic unity and support for the government.<ref name=schiro180/>

By [[1899]], the [[treaty ports]] system was terminated, and treaty revision finally attained. With the [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]] of [[1902]], Japan even more fully joined the ranks of the world powers. There remained, however, some continuing sense of inequality, however, which would later grow and contribute to the rise of militarism and ultranationalism in the 1930s-40s.

By [[1899]], the [[treaty ports]] system was terminated, and treaty revision finally attained. With the [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]] of [[1902]], Japan even more fully joined the ranks of the world powers. There remained, however, some continuing sense of inequality, however, which would later grow and contribute to the rise of militarism and ultranationalism in the 1930s-40s.

==Society==

==Society==

The [[samurai]] class was abolished in 187X, and the system of feudal domains (''han'') in [[1871]]. Though all were now meant to be relatively equal, as Imperial subjects, no longer divided into Confucian classes of merchants, peasants, and artisans, a new aristocracy was formed to include the former ''daimyô'', court nobles, and others.  

The [[samurai]] class was abolished in 187X, and the system of feudal domains (''han'') in [[1871]]. The wearing of swords in public was [[Haito edict|banned]] in [[1876]]. Though all were now meant to be relatively equal, as Imperial subjects, no longer divided into Confucian classes of merchants, peasants, and artisans, a new aristocracy was formed to include the former ''daimyô'', court nobles, and others.  

 

==Culture==

==Culture==

Everyday culture changed dramatically, from food to fashion to architecture, as Western styles were adopted. Much was retained, of course, or evolved into new modern forms without being discarded entirely; still, modernity came quickly, especially in the big cities, in these respects.

Everyday culture changed dramatically, from food to fashion to architecture, as Western styles were adopted. Much was retained, of course, or evolved into new modern forms without being discarded entirely; still, modernity came quickly, especially in the big cities, in these respects.

A national culture was born for the first time. [[Meiji education|Public education]], nationwide newspapers, and the abolition of the feudal system & centralization of government under Tokyo, along with numerous other factors fueled the development of a single national culture. Regional culture was celebrated, but it was also suppressed. The government promoted, as it still does today, the distinctive sights and scenery of each region, and regional products (''[[meibutsu]]'', e.g. [[Aomori prefecture|Aomori]] apples and [[Kagawa prefecture|Kagawa]] [[udon]]). But, it also promoted the idea that provincial dialects, and many other aspects of regional culture, were backwards, and un-modern. Through a singular nationwide public education curriculum and other methods, the government encouraged the development of a singular, modern, national culture and identity.

A national culture was born for the first time. Public education, nationwide newspapers, and the abolition of the feudal system & centralization of government under Tokyo, along with numerous other factors fueled the development of a single national culture. Regional culture was celebrated, but it was also suppressed. The government promoted, as it still does today, the distinctive sights and scenery of each region, and regional products (''[[meibutsu]]'', e.g. [[Aomori prefecture|Aomori]] apples and [[Kagawa prefecture|Kagawa]] [[udon]]). But, it also promoted the idea that provincial dialects, and many other aspects of regional culture, were backwards, and un-modern. Through a singular nationwide public education curriculum and other methods, the government encouraged the development of a singular, modern, national culture and identity.

In response to this, however, a number of scholars, writers, and artists perceived the loss of regional folk traditions as an existential threat to Japanese identity. They argued that Japanese identity was grounded fundamentally in folk traditions, including especially folk arts (''[[mingei]]'') such as pottery and textiles, and that this was being actively destroyed by the nationalization and modernization efforts; as Japan modernized, they found in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], [[Okinawa]], [[Colonial Korea|Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] what they claimed was an earlier, truer form of Japanese culture, which was being lost and which needed to be recovered. While their efforts certainly did serve to revive or preserve many folk traditions which might otherwise have been lost, it is important to note that the ''Mingei'' movement was not in fact rescuing these traditions as they truly had been in ages past, but rather was re-inventing, re-conceptualizing these arts; the ''Mingei'' vision of Japanese culture, history, and identity was an invented tradition<ref>Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. ''The Invention of Tradition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012.</ref> no less so than the more official and mainstream efforts to promote National arts.

In response to this, however, a number of scholars, writers, and artists perceived the loss of regional folk traditions as an existential threat to Japanese identity. They argued that Japanese identity was grounded fundamentally in folk traditions, including especially folk arts (''[[mingei]]'') such as pottery and textiles, and that this was being actively destroyed by the nationalization and modernization efforts; as Japan modernized, they found in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], [[Okinawa]], [[Colonial Korea|Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] what they claimed was an earlier, truer form of Japanese culture, which was being lost and which needed to be recovered. While their efforts certainly did serve to revive or preserve many folk traditions which might otherwise have been lost, it is important to note that the ''Mingei'' movement was not in fact rescuing these traditions as they truly had been in ages past, but rather was re-inventing, re-conceptualizing these arts; the ''Mingei'' vision of Japanese culture, history, and identity was an invented tradition<ref>Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. ''The Invention of Tradition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012.</ref> no less so than the more official and mainstream efforts to promote National arts.

Through participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]] in the 1880s, the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], [[shamisen]] music, [[nihon buyo|Japanese dance]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions." Others, such as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', simply continued along, changing and developing but not being re-conceptualized entirely. Artists such as [[Kobayashi Kiyochika]] designed ''ukiyo-e'' propaganda prints which served to report on national events, such as the promulgation of the Constitution, and the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. By the end of the period, however, ''ukiyo-e'' had fallen away, and had been replaced by modern print forms such as ''[[shin hanga]]'' ("new prints") and ''[[sosaku hanga|sôsaku hanga]]'' ("creative prints"). Photography, postcards, newspapers, and a variety of other modern arts & cultural forms also developed and became widespread in the Meiji period.

Through participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]] in the 1880s, the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting), the novel & other forms of "modern" literature, and [[shinpa|new forms of theatre]], were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], [[shamisen]] music, [[nihon buyo|Japanese dance]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions." Others, such as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', simply continued along, changing and developing but not being re-conceptualized entirely. Artists such as [[Kobayashi Kiyochika]] designed ''ukiyo-e'' propaganda prints which served to report on national events, such as the promulgation of the Constitution, and the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. By the end of the period, however, ''ukiyo-e'' had fallen away, and had been replaced by modern print forms such as ''[[shin hanga]]'' ("new prints") and ''[[sosaku hanga|sôsaku hanga]]'' ("creative prints"). Photography, postcards, newspapers, and a variety of other modern arts & cultural forms also developed and became widespread in the Meiji period.

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>