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The lower Yangzi region surrounding the cities of [[Hangzhou]] and [[Suzhou]] (and modern-day [[Shanghai]]) recovered from being discriminated against by the Hongwu Emperor (following their resistance to his forces prior to the founding of the dynasty),<ref name=schiro/> and became increasingly densely populated and commercialized over the course of the Ming period. Ninety percent of agricultural land in that region came to be owned by absentee landlords, who rented out the land to tenant farmers, and who came to chiefly grow cash crops such as cotton and silk. Textile merchants in the cities began to organize and oversee entire streams of production, from the tenant farmers producing raw materials, to networks of spinners, weavers, and dyers working out of their homes in rural areas and provincial cities & towns, to their own storefronts in the big cities. By the 17th century, spinning and weaving were China's top industries.<ref name=elman470/> Meanwhile, the southeast remained China's most populous and prosperous region.<ref name=schiro/>
The lower Yangzi region surrounding the cities of [[Hangzhou]] and [[Suzhou]] (and modern-day [[Shanghai]]) recovered from being discriminated against by the Hongwu Emperor (following their resistance to his forces prior to the founding of the dynasty),<ref name=schiro/> and became increasingly densely populated and commercialized over the course of the Ming period. Ninety percent of agricultural land in that region came to be owned by absentee landlords, who rented out the land to tenant farmers, and who came to chiefly grow cash crops such as cotton and silk. Textile merchants in the cities began to organize and oversee entire streams of production, from the tenant farmers producing raw materials, to networks of spinners, weavers, and dyers working out of their homes in rural areas and provincial cities & towns, to their own storefronts in the big cities. By the 17th century, spinning and weaving were China's top industries.<ref name=elman470/> Meanwhile, the southeast remained China's most populous and prosperous region.<ref name=schiro/>
While rural areas and big cities (Beijing, Hangzhou, Canton) saw considerable growth over the course of the Ming period, it was these provincial cities which saw the most urban expansion. Where previously landlords had been based on their rural estates, many now invested themselves in urban commercial and manufacturing endeavors - cotton and silk were perhaps the two chief sectors of proto-industrial growth in this period - turning their attention away from the comparatively less profitable agricultural production of their estates. Meanwhile, rural families began to engage in by-employments, sometimes devoting just as much, or even more, time to cotton spinning, silk weaving, or other craft work than to agriculture.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 73.</ref> [[Jingdezhen|Jiangxi province]] continued as a major center of [[ceramics]] and [[porcelain]] production; [[Nanjing]] is known for its cotton, and [[Suzhou]] for its [[silk]] weaving industry, while [[Hebei province]] remained the center of [[iron]] production, and [[Anhui province]] that for dyeing.<ref name=schiro/>
North of the [[Huai River]], much of the land was severely deforested as early as the 16th century, and the heavily silted-up [[Yellow River]] regularly changed course, flooding farms and villages. Relatively flat, wide open plains allowed military and police forces to move quickly and easily, but also allowed bandits and raiders to do the same, whereas in the south, such bandit activity was severely hindered by the great numbers of dikes, canals, and wet rice paddies crisscrossing the landscape. Lineage groups that enabled extensive social networking and societal safety nets in the south were less common in the north, and while most southerners were either landlords or tenant farmers, in the north the solitary landowner who cultivated his own plots was more typical.<ref>Spence, 14.</ref>
While rural areas and big cities (Beijing, Hangzhou, Canton) saw considerable growth over the course of the Ming period, it was these provincial cities which saw the most urban expansion. Numerous large cities across the empire were home to vibrant social life and a bustling diversity of commercial activities and opportunities, including moneylenders, moneychangers, restaurants, bars, teahouses, and brothels, fruit and vegetable stands, publishers & booksellers, noodlemakers, meat & fishmongers, and all sorts of artisans & craftsmen. Where previously landlords had been based on their rural estates, many now invested themselves in urban commercial and manufacturing endeavors - cotton and silk were perhaps the two chief sectors of proto-industrial growth in this period - turning their attention away from the comparatively less profitable agricultural production of their estates. Meanwhile, rural families began to engage in by-employments, sometimes devoting just as much, or even more, time to cotton spinning, silk weaving, or other craft work than to agriculture.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 73.</ref> [[Jingdezhen|Jiangxi province]] continued as a major center of [[ceramics]] and [[porcelain]] production; [[Nanjing]] is known for its cotton, and [[Suzhou]] for its [[silk]] weaving industry, while [[Hebei province]] remained the center of [[iron]] production, and [[Anhui province]] that for dyeing.<ref name=schiro/>
Even so, regional economic activity remained far stronger than national networks.<ref>By contrast, Edo period Japan saw considerable national integration, with goods from all regions passing through [[Edo]] and [[Osaka]], and making their way throughout the country.</ref> Urbanization brought with it the further expansion & development of urban landscapes which first emerged in a serious way in the Song Dynasty, filled with restaurants, teahouses, and brothels. Schools began to grow more numerous and widespread, and book publishing took off, beginning in the late 16th century. Color woodblock [[printing in China|printing]] never reached the heights it did [[ukiyo-e|in Japan]], but it was developed first in China, and full-color erotic prints were particularly popular in the late Ming, roughly 150-200 years before such materials reached their heights [[shunga|in Japan]]. The novel also burgeoned in the Ming Dynasty, and four Ming novels are considered among the greatest works of Chinese literature today: ''The [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Suikoden|The Water Margin]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'', and ''[[The Plum in the Golden Vase]]'' (aka ''The Golden Lotus'').<ref name=schiro/> Literacy expanded considerably over the course of the period, among commoners, as well as among women; while some male commentators at the time expressed fears about the negative consequences for society of women's autonomy, many expressed that greater literacy among women would benefit society, through better child-rearing, household management, and moral education.<ref>Spence, 9.</ref>
Even so, regional economic activity remained far stronger than national networks.<ref>By contrast, Edo period Japan saw considerable national integration, with goods from all regions passing through [[Edo]] and [[Osaka]], and making their way throughout the country.</ref> Urbanization brought with it the further expansion & development of urban landscapes which first emerged in a serious way in the Song Dynasty, filled with restaurants, teahouses, and brothels. Schools began to grow more numerous and widespread, and book publishing took off, beginning in the late 16th century. Color woodblock [[printing in China|printing]] never reached the heights it did [[ukiyo-e|in Japan]], but it was developed first in China, and full-color erotic prints were particularly popular in the late Ming, roughly 150-200 years before such materials reached their heights [[shunga|in Japan]]. The novel also burgeoned in the Ming Dynasty, and four Ming novels are considered among the greatest works of Chinese literature today: ''The [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Suikoden|The Water Margin]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'', and ''[[The Plum in the Golden Vase]]'' (aka ''The Golden Lotus'').<ref name=schiro/> Literacy expanded considerably over the course of the period, among commoners, as well as among women; while some male commentators at the time expressed fears about the negative consequences for society of women's autonomy, many expressed that greater literacy among women would benefit society, through better child-rearing, household management, and moral education.<ref>Spence, 9.</ref>