Changes

While rural areas and big cities (Beijing, Hangzhou, Canton) saw considerable growth over the course of the Ming period, it was these provincial cities which saw the most urban expansion. Where previously landlords had been based on their rural estates, many now invested themselves in urban commercial and manufacturing endeavors - cotton and silk were perhaps the two chief sectors of proto-industrial growth in this period -  turning their attention away from the comparatively less profitable agricultural production of their estates. Meanwhile, rural families began to engage in by-employments, sometimes devoting just as much, or even more, time to cotton spinning, silk weaving, or other craft work than to agriculture.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 73.</ref> [[Jingdezhen|Jiangxi province]] continued as a major center of [[ceramics]] and [[porcelain]] production; [[Nanjing]] is known for its cotton, and [[Suzhou]] for its [[silk]] weaving industry, while [[Hebei province]] remained the center of [[iron]] production, and [[Anhui province]] that for dyeing.<ref name=schiro/>

While rural areas and big cities (Beijing, Hangzhou, Canton) saw considerable growth over the course of the Ming period, it was these provincial cities which saw the most urban expansion. Where previously landlords had been based on their rural estates, many now invested themselves in urban commercial and manufacturing endeavors - cotton and silk were perhaps the two chief sectors of proto-industrial growth in this period -  turning their attention away from the comparatively less profitable agricultural production of their estates. Meanwhile, rural families began to engage in by-employments, sometimes devoting just as much, or even more, time to cotton spinning, silk weaving, or other craft work than to agriculture.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 73.</ref> [[Jingdezhen|Jiangxi province]] continued as a major center of [[ceramics]] and [[porcelain]] production; [[Nanjing]] is known for its cotton, and [[Suzhou]] for its [[silk]] weaving industry, while [[Hebei province]] remained the center of [[iron]] production, and [[Anhui province]] that for dyeing.<ref name=schiro/>

Even so, regional economic activity remained far stronger than national networks.<ref>By contrast, Edo period Japan saw considerable national integration, with goods from all regions passing through [[Edo]] and [[Osaka]], and making their way throughout the country.</ref> Urbanization brought with it the further expansion & development of urban landscapes which first emerged in a serious way in the Song Dynasty, filled with restaurants, teahouses, and brothels. Schools began to grow more numerous and widespread, and book publishing took off, beginning in the late 16th century. Color woodblock [[printing in China|printing]] never reached the heights it did [[ukiyo-e|in Japan]], but it was developed first in China, and full-color erotic prints were particularly popular in the late Ming, roughly 150-200 years before such materials reached their heights [[shunga|in Japan]]. The novel also burgeoned in the Ming Dynasty, and four Ming novels are considered among the greatest works of Chinese literature today: ''The [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Suikoden|The Water Margin]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'', and ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' (aka ''The Golden Lotus'').<ref name=schiro/>

Even so, regional economic activity remained far stronger than national networks.<ref>By contrast, Edo period Japan saw considerable national integration, with goods from all regions passing through [[Edo]] and [[Osaka]], and making their way throughout the country.</ref> Urbanization brought with it the further expansion & development of urban landscapes which first emerged in a serious way in the Song Dynasty, filled with restaurants, teahouses, and brothels. Schools began to grow more numerous and widespread, and book publishing took off, beginning in the late 16th century. Color woodblock [[printing in China|printing]] never reached the heights it did [[ukiyo-e|in Japan]], but it was developed first in China, and full-color erotic prints were particularly popular in the late Ming, roughly 150-200 years before such materials reached their heights [[shunga|in Japan]]. The novel also burgeoned in the Ming Dynasty, and four Ming novels are considered among the greatest works of Chinese literature today: ''The [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Suikoden|The Water Margin]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'', and ''[[The Plum in the Golden Vase]]'' (aka ''The Golden Lotus'').<ref name=schiro/> Literacy expanded considerably over the course of the period, among commoners, as well as among women; while some male commentators at the time expressed fears about the negative consequences for society of women's autonomy, many expressed that greater literacy among women would benefit society, through better child-rearing, household management, and moral education.<ref>Spence, 9.</ref>

The tax system was streamlined in the 16th century, in what was known as the [[Single Whip Reform]]. Thirty or forty separate land taxes were combined into a single tax obligation, no longer paid in kind (i.e. in grain, or other products), but in silver. Farmers were expected to sell their agricultural products at market to earn the coin necessary to pay their taxes.

The tax system was streamlined in the 16th century, in what was known as the [[Single Whip Reform]]. Thirty or forty separate land taxes were combined into a single tax obligation, no longer paid in kind (i.e. in grain, or other products), but in silver. Farmers were expected to sell their agricultural products at market to earn the coin necessary to pay their taxes.