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The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] to early [[Edo period]]s. The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref>
The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] to early [[Edo period]]s. The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref>
==Wakô in the 16th Century==
While there were certainly many Japanese who did engage in violent acts of piracy and raiding, one of the chief factors contributing to the growth of the phenomenon was the Chinese ''[[hai jin]]'' ban on overseas travel and trade. Formal trade with foreign countries (including Japan) was only allowed to occur within the framework of [[tribute|tributary relations]], and only at certain designated ports. Strict restrictions were placed on Chinese contact or trade with foreigners. In theory, this was intended to prevent Chinese merchants or seamen from becoming involved with the ''wakô'' or other foreign forces, but in practice, such policies were ineffective in preventing contact and trade - a great many Chinese settled abroad and conducted trade and other interactions as "overseas Chinese" no longer subject to Ming law.<ref name=arano186/> Furthermore, in the eyes of the Chinese Court, Japanese seamen who sought to trade with Chinese, or to make port in China, as well as many Chinese seeking to trade with Japanese, were considered in violation of the bans, and were labeled criminals, and ''wakô''. In this way, the numbers of the ''wakô'', and their perceived presence, grew dramatically.
While there were certainly many Japanese who did engage in violent acts of piracy and raiding, one of the chief factors contributing to the growth of the phenomenon was the Chinese ''[[hai jin]]'' ban on overseas travel and trade. Formal trade with foreign countries (including Japan) was only allowed to occur within the framework of [[tribute|tributary relations]], and only at certain designated ports. Strict restrictions were placed on Chinese contact or trade with foreigners. In theory, this was intended to prevent Chinese merchants or seamen from becoming involved with the ''wakô'' or other foreign forces, but in practice, such policies were ineffective in preventing contact and trade - a great many Chinese settled abroad and conducted trade and other interactions as "overseas Chinese" no longer subject to Ming law.<ref name=arano186/> Furthermore, in the eyes of the Chinese Court, Japanese seamen who sought to trade with Chinese, or to make port in China, as well as many Chinese seeking to trade with Japanese, were considered in violation of the bans, and were labeled criminals, and ''wakô''. In this way, the numbers of the ''wakô'', and their perceived presence, grew dramatically.
As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref>
As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref>
The question of the extent to which regional ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'', particularly in Kyushu, supported and enabled ''wakô'' activity is a contentious one, and one of the chief issues involved in the subject of ''wakô''. Arano asserts that the regional ''daimyô'' must have provided tacit consent, if not outright invitations, for these Chinese merchants to engage in such activities within their domains; the Chinese smugglers had similar relationships with local officials in China.<ref name=arano188/>
The question of the extent to which regional ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'', particularly in Kyushu, supported and enabled ''wakô'' activity is a contentious one, and one of the chief issues involved in the subject of ''wakô''. Arano asserts that the regional ''daimyô'' must have provided tacit consent, if not outright invitations, for these Chinese merchants to engage in such activities within their domains; the Chinese smugglers had similar relationships with local officials in China.<ref name=arano188/> As noted above, much of what was described as "''wakô''" activity was simply trade - illicit or otherwise - and not true piracy, in the sense of violent raids on coastal towns or on other ships. Chinese communities in Kyushu flourished in the 16th century, many of them located in castle towns, and directly encouraged and supported by the local ''daimyô''. Chinese communities brought Chinese trade, i.e. income, as well as skilled craftsmen and other talented workers, thus making the idea of supporting a local Chinese community quite attractive for ''daimyô''.<ref name=arano194>Arano. p194.</ref>
Most, if not all, residents of these Chinese communities in Kyushu traveled to Japan illegally (travel to Japan was, itself, after all, illegal under Ming law), though many also came against their will, either as prisoners of the ''wakô'', or of the samurai forces of Hideyoshi, who brought back many prisoners of war to Japan when he [[Korean Invasions|invaded Korea in the 1590s]].<ref name=arano194/>
==Decline of the Wakô==
The later years of the reign of the Ming [[Jiajing Emperor]] (1521-1567) saw a peak in ''wakô'' activity, which subsided when, in 1567, the Ming Court lifted the bans on Chinese trade and interaction in Southeast Asia<ref name=arano189>Arano. p189.</ref>, thus allowing many so-called "''wakô''" to become legitimate traders and seafarers in the eyes of the Chinese authorities. Many smugglers still engaging in activities deemed illicit, such as trade with Japan, moved their bases at this time to Taiwan or the Philippines.<ref name=arano189/>
The later years of the reign of the Ming [[Jiajing Emperor]] (1521-1567) saw a peak in ''wakô'' activity, which subsided when, in 1567, the Ming Court lifted the bans on Chinese trade and interaction in Southeast Asia<ref name=arano189>Arano. p189.</ref>, thus allowing many so-called "''wakô''" to become legitimate traders and seafarers in the eyes of the Chinese authorities. Many smugglers still engaging in activities deemed illicit, such as trade with Japan, moved their bases at this time to Taiwan or the Philippines.<ref name=arano189/>
[[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] helped further weaken the ''wakô'' with a [[1588]] edict banning piracy. Hideyoshi established a definition of "Japanese waters," and declared that force could not be used to settle disputes within those boundaries; further, this edict severely weakened the ability of provincial ''daimyô'' to support, benefit from, or otherwise directly associate with pirates, i.e. the ''wakô''.<ref name=arano190>Arano. p190.</ref>
[[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] helped further weaken the ''wakô'' with a [[1588]] edict banning piracy. Hideyoshi established a definition of "Japanese waters," and declared that force could not be used to settle disputes within those boundaries; further, this edict severely weakened the ability of provincial ''daimyô'' to support, benefit from, or otherwise directly associate with pirates, i.e. the ''wakô''.<ref name=arano190>Arano. p190.</ref>
Though the actual ''wakô'' were somewhat weakened by these and other steps taken by Hideyoshi, his invasions of Korea in the 1590s were viewed by China and Korea as part and parcel of the ''wakô'' phenomenon. His samurai forces, who raided, plundered, and pillaged, destroying and stealing much financial and cultural property, and kidnapping many craftsmen (especially potters) and others, were seen as no different from the ''wakô'' pirates.<ref>Arano. p197.</ref> This is somewhat ironic, as, according to some sources, Hideyoshi's goal in invading Korea was to press China for access to the so-called "tally trade" (''[[kango boeki|kangô bôeki]]'')<ref>Arano. pp206-207. Arano asserts that Hideyoshi believed that by demonstrating Japan's military supremacy, Japan could thus rightfully claim "civilized" non-barbarian status within the [[Sinocentric world order]], and a right to access to trade.</ref>, the very same formal trade relations which China which were cut off by the Ming court in response to Japanese refusal or inability to curb ''wakô'' raids.
In the early years of the Tokugawa shogunate, various efforts were made to gain access to formal Chinese trade, thus curbing the ''wakô'' phenomenon by diminishing the situations under which traders between China and Japan would be considered "pirates."
A letter sent by the shogunate to the Governor-General of Fujian in [[1610]] was among these efforts. The letter was drafted by [[Hayashi Razan]] and ''[[Nagasaki bugyo|Nagasaki bugyô]]'' [[Hasegawa Sahyoe|Hasegawa Sahyôe]], and passed through the hands of [[Honda Masazumi]] and the Chinese merchant [[Zhou Xingru]], who had in fact come to Japan in order to complain about the pirates. The letter was aimed chiefly at seeking normalized relations with China, and access to the official tally trade. It offers that [[Nagasaki]] will be formally opened as a port for traders from Fujian, and offers that a formal Japanese mission will be sent to China once access to formal trade is obtained. The letter also requests that wood, water, or other supplies be provided to Japanese sailors who find their way to Chinese shores in an emergency (shipwreck, drifting off-course, etc.), but explains the [[red seal ships]] system, and grants permission to the Chinese authorities to punish as a pirate anyone not carrying a vermillion-sealed license.<ref>Arano. p209.</ref> By 1620, however, the shogunate gave up on trying to restore relations with China.<ref>Arano. p210.</ref>
The imposition of [[kaikin|maritime restrictions]] in the 1630s dealt a major blow to the ''wakô''. All but three ports<ref>Plus the more land-based "port" of access in [[Matsumae]] for interactions and trade with [[Ainu]].</ref> were closed to foreign trade, and Japanese were forbidden from leaving the country or returning. ''Wakô'' activity still continued among Japanese, and others, based overseas, who traded (or raided) in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia, as well as among, presumably, some small number of smugglers who continued to engage in illegal operations along the Kyushu coast. Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in [[1644]], Ming loyalists continued to fight against the [[Manchus|Manchu]] conquest for forty years; these loyalists, and others associated with them, may have been at times referred to as ''wakô'' in Qing documents.
The imposition of [[kaikin|maritime restrictions]] in the 1630s dealt a major blow to the ''wakô''. All but three ports<ref>Plus the more land-based "port" of access in [[Matsumae]] for interactions and trade with [[Ainu]].</ref> were closed to foreign trade, and Japanese were forbidden from leaving the country or returning. ''Wakô'' activity still continued among Japanese, and others, based overseas, who traded (or raided) in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia, as well as among, presumably, some small number of smugglers who continued to engage in illegal operations along the Kyushu coast. Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in [[1644]], Ming loyalists continued to fight against the [[Manchus|Manchu]] conquest for forty years; these loyalists, and others associated with them, may have been at times referred to as ''wakô'' in Qing documents.