Changes

==Wakô in the 16th Century==

==Wakô in the 16th Century==

While there were certainly many Japanese who did engage in violent acts of piracy and raiding, one of the chief factors contributing to the growth of the phenomenon was the Chinese ''[[hai jin]]'' ban on overseas travel and trade. Formal trade with foreign countries (including Japan) was only allowed to occur within the framework of [[tribute|tributary relations]], and only at certain designated ports. Strict restrictions were placed on Chinese contact or trade with foreigners. In theory, this was intended to prevent Chinese merchants or seamen from becoming involved with the ''wakô'' or other foreign forces, but in practice, such policies were ineffective in preventing contact and trade - a great many Chinese settled abroad and conducted trade and other interactions as "overseas Chinese" no longer subject to Ming law.<ref name=arano186/> Furthermore, in the eyes of the Chinese Court, Japanese seamen who sought to trade with Chinese, or to make port in China, as well as many Chinese seeking to trade with Japanese, were considered in violation of the bans, and were labeled criminals, and ''wakô''. In this way, the numbers of the ''wakô'', and their perceived presence, grew dramatically.

Though relations between [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] [[China]] and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] were quite good for a time, with merchants from both countries engaging in official trade, by the early 16th century, tensions arose between the two powers. The increasingly weak shogunate did not wield strong control throughout Japan, let alone overseas, and was unable to curb or halt the attacks by Japanese pirates, acting independently, upon the Chinese coast.<ref name=so204>So. p204.</ref> By the 1530s, Sengoku (i.e. civil war in many parts of Japan) was in full swing, the shogunate held little power, and relations with China had fully soured.

As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref>

''Wakô'' raiding parties burned Ningpo in [[1523]], traveled up the Yangtze and attacked cities along its shores in [[1552]], and attacked Nanjing and Chaozhou in [[1555]]. In [[1563]], Chinese military forces expelled a number of ''wakô'' from Fujian.<ref name=so204/>

The question of the extent to which regional ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'', particularly in Kyushu, supported and enabled ''wakô'' activity is a contentious one, and one of the chief issues involved in the subject of ''wakô''. Arano asserts that the regional ''daimyô'' must have provided tacit consent, if not outright invitations, for these Chinese merchants to engage in such activities within their domains; the Chinese smugglers had similar relationships with local officials in China.<ref name=arano188/> As noted above, much of what was described as "''wakô''" activity was simply trade - illicit or otherwise - and not true piracy, in the sense of violent raids on coastal towns or on other ships. Chinese communities in Kyushu flourished in the 16th century, many of them located in castle towns, and directly encouraged and supported by the local ''daimyô''. Chinese communities brought Chinese trade, i.e. income, as well as skilled craftsmen and other talented workers, thus making the idea of supporting a local Chinese community quite attractive for ''daimyô''.<ref name=arano194>Arano. p194.</ref>

 

 

The ''wakô'' are generally said to have made their bases on Formosa, in the Ryukyus, and in ports, castle towns, and more remote coastal sites on Kyushu. However, the question of the extent to which regional ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'', particularly in Kyushu, supported and enabled ''wakô'' activity is a contentious one, and one of the chief issues involved in the subject of ''wakô''. Arano asserts that the regional ''daimyô'' must have provided tacit consent, if not outright invitations, for these Chinese merchants to engage in such activities within their domains; the Chinese smugglers had similar relationships with local officials in China.<ref name=arano188/> As noted above, much of what was described as "''wakô''" activity was simply trade - illicit or otherwise - and not true piracy, in the sense of violent raids on coastal towns or on other ships. Chinese communities in Kyushu flourished in the 16th century, many of them located in castle towns, and directly encouraged and supported by the local ''daimyô''. Chinese communities brought Chinese trade, i.e. income, as well as skilled craftsmen and other talented workers, thus making the idea of supporting a local Chinese community quite attractive for ''daimyô''.<ref name=arano194>Arano. p194.</ref>

Most, if not all, residents of these Chinese communities in Kyushu traveled to Japan illegally (travel to Japan was, itself, after all, illegal under Ming law), though many also came against their will, either as prisoners of the ''wakô'', or of the samurai forces of Hideyoshi, who brought back many prisoners of war to Japan when he [[Korean Invasions|invaded Korea in the 1590s]].<ref name=arano194/>

Most, if not all, residents of these Chinese communities in Kyushu traveled to Japan illegally (travel to Japan was, itself, after all, illegal under Ming law), though many also came against their will, either as prisoners of the ''wakô'', or of the samurai forces of Hideyoshi, who brought back many prisoners of war to Japan when he [[Korean Invasions|invaded Korea in the 1590s]].<ref name=arano194/>

==References==

==References==

*Arano Yasunori. "The Formation of a Japanocentric World Order." ''International Journal of Asian Studies'' 2:2 (2005). pp185-216.

*Arano Yasunori. "The Formation of a Japanocentric World Order." ''International Journal of Asian Studies'' 2:2 (2005). pp185-216.

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[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

[[Category:Criminals, Bandits, and Pirates]]

[[Category:Criminals, Bandits, and Pirates]]