Chinese Imperial examinations
- Chinese: 科舉 (kējǔ)
Imperial examinations served as the chief avenue for Chinese subjects to enter the ranks of the scholar-bureaucrat class, and to gain prestigious, stable, and economically elite positions within the Imperial bureaucracy. The exams tested candidates chiefly on the Confucian classics, poetry, and the application of Confucian learning to matters of public policy and statecraft; in later centuries, the prominence of poetry in the exams declined significantly.
System
Anyone of any socio-economic background or status was eligible to take the exams, and in theory, anyone of any status or background could pass, or even excel, thus earning themselves a prestigious bureaucratic position. The Court established several hundred schools across the country, in which young men would be trained in preparation for the exams; however, most of these schools were terribly underfunded, and the education they offered was ultimately sorely insufficient. One needed to hire a private tutor in order to obtain even a relatively basic education. Those from prominent or influential households thus continued to possess a distinct advantage. It was those from relatively well-to-do backgrounds who had the free time in which to study, the educated relatives who could serve as tutors, and the resources to obtain (or already possess) books and other study materials.
Even early on, the examination system and its associated state-sponsored schools (学校, C: xuéxiào) had their critics. Many argued that the system stifled intellectual inquiry and creative thinking, as it focused so heavily on rote memorization. Others were concerned that a system which focused so heavily on right/wrong answers in a written exam made it difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate the candidates' moral character; many members of this camp advocated a system more closely tied to advancement (promotion) through the school system, in which teachers could account for their students' moral character and virtue.
There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county to move on to the provincial exams, then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level, before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. At each level there were quotas as to how many candidates would be permitted to pass, though, someone who did not advance to the next level could earn a position as a member of the gentry on a more local or provincial level. Thus, each county would possess a number of shēng-yuán (生員), who held only the lowest degree, having passed only the county-level exams; holders of this degree were considered "government students" and members of the lower gentry, and were not eligible for formal appointment to government positions. Those who passed the provincial examinations were called jǔrén (舉人), and were eligible for official appointment. Passing the metropolitan exam entitled one to the jìnshì (進士) degree, and, of course, the possibility of official appointment.[1]
An example of the size of the quotas can be seen in the statistic that of roughly 400,000 men who had taken the exams by the mid-13th century, a mere 800 were selected for positions within the government. Towards the very end of the Imperial period, in late 19th century Shandong province, the quota for jǔrén degrees was set at 70-80 for each triennial administration of the exam.[1] The average age at which one passed the exams and entered into government service was 31, representing a rather long period of study and preparation. It was not uncommon for a candidate to fail the exams at least once, trying again on numerous occasions; some of the most prominent figures in Chinese history failed numerous times, only finally earning admission into the bureaucracy late in life.
Beginning in the Yuan or Ming Dynasty, the exam came to focus on the "Four Books" advocated by Zhu Xi, and on Zhu's own commentaries, which themselves came to be canonized texts to be memorized. The Four Books were the Analects of Confucius, the writings of Mencius, and two chapters Zhu excerpted from the Book of Rites: the Great Learning (Daxue), and The Mean.[2]
The Ryûkyû Kingdom administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of Ming Dynasty China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. Korea, too, in various periods, beginning under the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392), used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.
History
Tang Dynasty
During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), candidates were permitted to choose between two forms of the exam: a "classics" exam which tested rote memorization of the classics, and a more prestigious "literary" exam which also required a considerable degree of memorized knowledge of the classics, but which also tested candidates on their literary/poetic abilities.[3]
At this time, only roughly 10% of officials earned their positions through the examination system; most obtained their inclusion in the scholar-bureaucrat class via recommendations. Local magistrates recommended individuals, ostensibly, according to a variety of subjective criteria, including their personal virtue, and literary ability, though more often than not, one's family pedigree, and political influence, played crucial roles. While in later periods the exams were restructured to be judged, ostensibly, in an anonymous fashion (thus eliminating elements of favoritism, and helping to ensure that candidates were judged primarily on the basis of the written exams themselves), in the Tang Dynasty, it was quite common for candidates to meet with examiners multiple times prior to the exams, and to send samples of their writing, so-called "warming-the-exam" letters, to the examiners; while in later periods examiners judged candidates' calligraphy as indications of their personal moral character, at this time, it was through these personal relationships that examiners were able to get to know the personal and moral character of the candidates.[4]
Birth or marriage into a prominent or influential family was often extremely beneficial towards one's prospects of earning a recommendation. In fact, for a time, merchants, artisans, and their descendants were barred from taking the exams entirely; it was only in the 9th century that this ban was eased, and a wider range of people were first permitted to sit for the exams, including at least one Arab merchant, who took the exams at that time.[3]
Song Dynasty
In the 11th century, the Song dynasty Imperial court made some efforts to reduce the direct influence of prestige and political influence, introducing stronger elements of anonymity into the structure of the exam. The examination system was expanded to make it, in theory, more directly meritocratic, rewarding those of any class or background who had superior talents or skills, and thus creating a bureaucracy of highly skilled, highly competent, officials. In addition, the system of appointments was somewhat fluid, allowing individuals to be appointed to posts above their rank. The system was not purely democratic or meritocratic, however, as the Court balanced these reforms with other means by which favoritism was allowed to continue, under the assumption that qualified and upright officials could recommend other upright and qualified individuals for service. A system called the "yin privilege" or "shadow privilege" also allowed those closely related to, or in the service of, high-ranking prominent officials to take a different, easier, exam, with a roughly 50% pass rate. The positions earned through such exams were low-ranking and not as prestigious, but, still, they provided entry into the bureaucracy without taking the more difficult standard exams. Through this system, and through careful intermarriage and the like, a group of roughly 100 prominent families was thus able to dominate the bureaucracy for a time, during the Song Dynasty.[5]
The system at this time functioned through six aspects: examinations, schools, appointment, protection privilege, sponsored appointment, and evaluation. The latter two were eliminated or severely curtailed in later periods as part of efforts to stem hereditary power and to strengthen the meritocratic aspect of the exam system.
Schools were established in each province, where students could receive instruction preparing them for the exams. Students were expected to enter the schools with a certain degree of competency already in classical language and classical texts; though the system was open to anyone in theory, regardless of class, in practice only those from families of some means were able to obtain the education (including even basic literacy) necessary to participate at these schools, and thus to have any chance on the exams.
Yuan Dynasty
Under the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), the exams were suspended for a time, but were re-instituted beginning in 1315. At this time, two types, or tiers, of examinations were offered. Han Chinese took an exam based on the Four Books designated by Song Dynasty Neo-Confucian founder Zhu Xi; each candidate was required to write several short essays roughly 300 characters in length on these subjects, as well as a five-hundred-character essay on a different set of texts, plus a one-thousand-character essay on a problem of contemporary governance. The exam for Mongols and members of other nomadic or Turkic peoples, meanwhile, was much less strenuous, involving detailed questions based on the Four Books, and a five-hundred-character essay on a contemporary topic. Even the version of the exam now taken by Han Chinese was much less strenuous than that advocated by Zhu Xi; his influence upon these and later exams would be immeasurable, but, so too would this easier format devised by the Mongols.[6]
Meanwhile, even after the exams were restored, many government positions continued to be filled by appointment or by heredity, as was more traditional within Mongol society. Those who did acquire their positions through the exam system were subject to quotas - 50% of those passing the exam each year were to be non-Chinese - making the odds of securing a position in this manner exceptionally difficult for Chinese scholars.[6]
Ming Dynasty
In the Ming Dynasty, efforts were made to strengthen the exam system's focus on merit-based appointments, eliminating or severely curtailing practices such as "sponsored appointment" common in the Song Dynasty. Further, official posts became more strictly limited to those of appropriate court rank. These modifications would survive into the Qing Dynasty.
The evaluation and appointment of aspiring officials was handled by the Ministry of Personnel, while the Ministry of Rites oversaw the education of potential exam-takers. The network of examination schools became extended down to the county level during the Ming period; however, the "dynastic," or highest level schools in this network became absorbed into the examination system itself, becoming more like checkpoints and private study halls, where students studied on their own rather than receiving structured instruction; students received a stipend to support them while they devoted their time to study, but entrance into these "schools" (and into receiving a stipend) was restricted by a system of quotas.
Qing Dynasty
The examinations system was abolished in 1905, as a more "modern" form of Chinese education, heavily influenced by Western and Japanese models, became dominant, following years of modernization and Westernization throughout other aspects of Chinese society. The Qing Dynasty fell in 1911, marking the final and complete end of the Imperial bureaucracy into which the exams had fed.
References
- Benjamin Elman, A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China, University of California Press (2000), 125-172.
- Bonnie Smith et al. Crossroads and Cultures. Bedford/St. Martins (2012), 430-431.
