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Sugar cane was first introduced into the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]] in [[1374]]. It soon became one of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom's]] chief exports / [[tribute]] goods. Between sugar obtained from the kingdom, and sugar grown in the [[Amami Islands]] (taken from the kingdom and under the direct control of [[Satsuma han]] since [[1609]]), Satsuma served as the chief source of sugar in Japan throughout the [[Edo period]].

Sugar cane was first introduced into the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]] in [[1374]]. It soon became one of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom's]] chief exports / [[tribute]] goods. Between sugar obtained from the kingdom, and sugar grown in the [[Amami Islands]] (taken from the kingdom and under the direct control of [[Satsuma han]] since [[1609]]), Satsuma served as the chief source of sugar in Japan throughout the [[Edo period]].

==Production, Taxes & Monopolies==

==In Japan==

In the 1620s, a pair of young Ryukyuan aristocrats introduced to the kingdom advanced sugar processing techniques which they had studied in China; sugar plantations in the islands quickly began to take off. Previously, mainland Japan obtained brown, white, and rock sugar chiefly from [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese]] and [[VOC|Dutch]] merchants in [[Nagasaki]].

Prior to Satsuma getting involved in the sugar industry, mainland Japan obtained brown, white, and rock sugar chiefly from [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese]] and [[VOC|Dutch]] merchants in [[Nagasaki]]. Sugar continued to come in through these sources even later into the Edo period, with Dutch merchants selling Javanese sugar and Chinese merchants selling Taiwanese sugar following the [[Qing Dynasty]] quelling of the last of the [[Ming loyalists]] on [[Taiwan]] in [[1683]]. Sugar also began to be grown and refined in small quantities in [[Owari han|Owari]], [[Wakayama han|Wakayama]], and several [[han|domains]] in [[Chugoku|western Honshû]] and [[Shikoku]] after the shogun obtained information about sugar cane cultivation from Satsuma and planted a test crop at his personal villa. By 1800 or so, consumption of domestic sugar exceeded that of imported sugar.

The Ryûkyû Kingdom's government claimed a royal monopoly on sales of sugar and turmeric within the kingdom in [[1647]], helping the kingdom afford its repayments on loans from [[Satsuma han]]. Fifty years later, the kingdom placed restrictions on the planting of these two crops; these restrictions wouldn't be lifted until [[1888]].

This domestic sugar included, however, sugar grown on the [[Amami Islands]], a set of islands seized from the Ryûkyû Kingdom and annexed to Satsuma han in [[Invasion of Ryukyu|1609]]. In a series of policies that has been compared to "a structure of colonial extraction,"<ref name=hellyer95>Hellyer, 95.</ref> Satsuma encouraged the islanders of [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]], [[Tokunoshima]], and [[Kikaigashima]] to dedicate much of their efforts to the cultivation and refining of sugar, rather than subsistence farming or other diversified activities. This paralleled the exploitative practices of sugar plantations elsewhere in the world, such as in the Caribbean and [[Japanese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii]], in various respects, with one key difference (among others) being that Satsuma did not employ slaves or indentured labor,<ref>Hellyer, 96.</ref> but allowed the islanders to retain their traditional lands, and to a large extent, their local social hierarchies, elite political structures, and a small degree of political autonomy.

The kingdom began, in [[1666]], to pay one-third of its annual tribute payments to Satsuma in sugar. Sugar was not only grown in the Ryûkyûs, but was also obtained by Ryukyuan trading ships in Southeast Asia.  

In the year 1713 alone, approximately 1.13 million ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' (678 metric tons) of sugar from Ryûkyû and Amami was sold within Japan. Satsuma established administrative offices on each of these islands, and from [[1745]] onwards, the islanders were expected to pay [[tribute]]/taxes in sugar instead of in rice, a policy which required islanders to begin cultivating more sugar, instead of foodstuffs, and which resulted in subsistence difficulties for many farmers. This policy remained in place despite a [[1755]] famine in which 3,000 people died on Tokunoshima. From [[1777]] to [[1787]], the domain purchased additional sugar beyond that which was sent in taxes or tribute, but abolished this program after only ten years, deciding it was too harsh; instead, islanders were now permitted to directly exchange sugar for rice and other foodstuffs they needed.<ref name=hellyer95/>

Meanwhile, though Satsuma dominated the sugar market in Japan, some sugar was also imported at Nagasaki, with Dutch merchants selling Javanese sugar and Chinese merchants selling Taiwanese sugar following the [[Qing Dynasty]] quelling of the last of the [[Ming loyalists]] on [[Taiwan]] in [[1683]]. Sugar also began to be grown and refined in small quantities in [[Owari han|Owari]], [[Wakayama han|Wakayama]], and several [[han|domains]] in western Honshû and Shikoku after the shogun obtained information about sugar cane cultivation from Satsuma and planted a test crop at his personal villa. By 1800 or so, consumption of domestic sugar exceeded that of imported sugar.

In the 1620s, a pair of young Ryukyuan aristocrats introduced to the kingdom advanced sugar processing techniques which they had studied in China; sugar plantations in the islands quickly began to take off, and Ryukyuan sugar, imported via Satsuma, became a major source of the product. The kingdom began in [[1666]] to pay one-third of its annual tribute payments to Satsuma in sugar. Sugar was not only grown in the Ryûkyûs, but was also obtained by Ryukyuan trading ships in Southeast Asia.

 

The Ryûkyû Kingdom's government claimed a royal monopoly on sales of sugar and [[turmeric]] (''ukon'') within the kingdom in [[1647]], helping the kingdom afford its repayments on loans from [[Satsuma han]]. Fifty years later, the kingdom placed restrictions on the planting of these two crops; these restrictions wouldn't be lifted until [[1888]].

Following the [[Ryukyu Shobun|overthrow of the kingdom and annexation of its land by Japan]], sugar taxes continued to be paid in kind (i.e., in sugar, rather than in cash) until [[1903]]. Private sales of sugar were prohibited until this tax was paid, and when sugar was paid to the [[Okinawa prefecture|Okinawa prefectural government]], it was at a set price below the market price. The prefecture would then sell the sugar at market in [[Osaka]], at market prices, making a considerable profit.<ref>[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu''. University of Hawaii Press, 1999. p148.</ref>

Following the [[Ryukyu Shobun|overthrow of the kingdom and annexation of its land by Japan]], sugar taxes continued to be paid in kind (i.e., in sugar, rather than in cash) until [[1903]]. Private sales of sugar were prohibited until this tax was paid, and when sugar was paid to the [[Okinawa prefecture|Okinawa prefectural government]], it was at a set price below the market price. The prefecture would then sell the sugar at market in [[Osaka]], at market prices, making a considerable profit.<ref>[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu''. University of Hawaii Press, 1999. p148.</ref>

Around 1903, Okinawan journalist [[Ota Chofu|Ôta Chôfu]] began to establish a series of organizations in Osaka aimed at helping his fellow Okinawans enter the Japanese markets; among these was a Sugar Dealers' Association.<ref>[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing, 2000. p430.</ref>

Around 1903, Okinawan journalist [[Ota Chofu|Ôta Chôfu]] began to establish a series of organizations in Osaka aimed at helping his fellow Okinawans enter the Japanese markets; among these was a Sugar Dealers' Association.<ref>[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing, 2000. p430.</ref>

Brown sugar (''kurozatô'') remains a [[meibutsu|famous Okinawan good]], and it is often included in Okinawa-themed sweets.

Brown sugar (''kurozatô'') remains a [[meibutsu|famous Okinawan good]] today, and it is often included in Okinawa-themed sweets.

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==References==

==References==

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[[Category:Ryukyu]]

[[Category:Ryukyu]]

[[Category:Economics]]

[[Category:Economics]]