Changes

This domestic sugar included, however, sugar grown on the [[Amami Islands]], a set of islands seized from the Ryûkyû Kingdom and annexed to Satsuma han in [[Invasion of Ryukyu|1609]]. In a series of policies that has been compared to "a structure of colonial extraction,"<ref name=hellyer95>Hellyer, 95.</ref> Satsuma encouraged the islanders of [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]], [[Tokunoshima]], and [[Kikaigashima]] to dedicate much of their efforts to the cultivation and refining of sugar, rather than subsistence farming or other diversified activities. This paralleled the exploitative practices of sugar plantations elsewhere in the world, such as in the Caribbean and [[Japanese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii]], in various respects, with one key difference (among others) being that Satsuma did not employ slaves or indentured labor,<ref>Hellyer, 96.</ref> but allowed the islanders to retain their traditional lands, and to a large extent, their local social hierarchies, elite political structures, and a small degree of political autonomy.

This domestic sugar included, however, sugar grown on the [[Amami Islands]], a set of islands seized from the Ryûkyû Kingdom and annexed to Satsuma han in [[Invasion of Ryukyu|1609]]. In a series of policies that has been compared to "a structure of colonial extraction,"<ref name=hellyer95>Hellyer, 95.</ref> Satsuma encouraged the islanders of [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]], [[Tokunoshima]], and [[Kikaigashima]] to dedicate much of their efforts to the cultivation and refining of sugar, rather than subsistence farming or other diversified activities. This paralleled the exploitative practices of sugar plantations elsewhere in the world, such as in the Caribbean and [[Japanese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii]], in various respects, with one key difference (among others) being that Satsuma did not employ slaves or indentured labor,<ref>Hellyer, 96.</ref> but allowed the islanders to retain their traditional lands, and to a large extent, their local social hierarchies, elite political structures, and a small degree of political autonomy.

In the year 1713 alone, approximately 1.13 million ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' (678 metric tons) of sugar from Ryûkyû and Amami was sold within Japan. Satsuma established administrative offices on each of these islands, and from [[1745]] onwards, the islanders were expected to pay [[tribute]]/taxes in sugar instead of in rice, a policy which required islanders to begin cultivating more sugar, instead of foodstuffs, and which resulted in subsistence difficulties for many farmers. This policy remained in place despite a [[1755]] famine in which 3,000 people died on Tokunoshima. From [[1777]] to [[1787]], the domain purchased additional sugar beyond that which was sent in taxes or tribute, but abolished this program after only ten years, deciding it was too harsh; instead, islanders were now permitted to directly exchange sugar for rice and other foodstuffs they needed.<ref name=hellyer95/>

In the year 1713 alone, approximately 1.13 million ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' (678 metric tons) of sugar from Ryûkyû and Amami was sold within Japan. Satsuma established administrative offices on each of these islands, and from [[1745]] onwards, the islanders were expected to pay tribute/taxes in sugar instead of in rice, a policy which required islanders to begin cultivating more sugar, instead of foodstuffs, and which resulted in subsistence difficulties for many farmers. This policy remained in place despite a [[1755]] famine in which 3,000 people died on Tokunoshima. From [[1777]] to [[1787]], the domain purchased additional sugar beyond that which was sent in taxes or tribute, but abolished this program after only ten years, deciding it was too harsh; instead, islanders were now permitted to directly exchange sugar for rice and other foodstuffs they needed.<ref name=hellyer95/>

 

Satsuma policy in the sugar-growing parts of the Amamis grew significantly harsher in the last decades of the Edo period, and came to even more closely resemble oppressive, exploitative, plantation systems. Under a Satsuma official named [[Zusho Shozaemon|Zusho Shôzaemon]], the islanders were forced in the 1820s-1830s to drain all their rice paddies and convert them to fields of sugar cane; men ages 15 to 60 and women ages 13 to 50 were assigned fields to work. The islanders were forbidden from using [[currency|money]] on the islands, and from trading amongst one another, and were instead obliged to purchase all of their food and other necessities through an official channel, typically at inflated prices. The domain re-established its monopoly on the purchase of sugar from the islands, buying it from the islanders at roughly 1/3 the price it would be worth at the [[Osaka]] markets. Zusho also oversaw the expansion of efforts to combat smuggling in and around the domain.<ref name=hellyer128>Hellyer, 127-128.</ref>

==In Ryûkyû==

==In Ryûkyû==

The Ryûkyû Kingdom's government claimed a royal monopoly on sales of sugar and [[turmeric]] (''ukon'') within the kingdom in [[1647]], helping the kingdom afford its repayments on loans from [[Satsuma han]]. Fifty years later, the kingdom placed restrictions on the planting of these two crops; these restrictions wouldn't be lifted until [[1888]].

The Ryûkyû Kingdom's government claimed a royal monopoly on sales of sugar and [[turmeric]] (''ukon'') within the kingdom in [[1647]], helping the kingdom afford its repayments on loans from [[Satsuma han]]. Fifty years later, the kingdom placed restrictions on the planting of these two crops; these restrictions wouldn't be lifted until [[1888]].

Following the [[Ryukyu Shobun|overthrow of the kingdom and annexation of its land by Japan]], sugar taxes continued to be paid in kind (i.e., in sugar, rather than in cash) until [[1903]]. Private sales of sugar were prohibited until this tax was paid, and when sugar was paid to the [[Okinawa prefecture|Okinawa prefectural government]], it was at a set price below the market price. The prefecture would then sell the sugar at market in [[Osaka]], at market prices, making a considerable profit.<ref>[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu''. University of Hawaii Press, 1999. p148.</ref>

Following the [[Ryukyu Shobun|overthrow of the kingdom and annexation of its land by Japan]], sugar taxes continued to be paid in kind (i.e., in sugar, rather than in cash) until [[1903]]. Private sales of sugar were prohibited until this tax was paid, and when sugar was paid to the [[Okinawa prefecture|Okinawa prefectural government]], it was at a set price below the market price. The prefecture would then sell the sugar at market in [[Osaka]], at market prices, making a considerable profit.<ref>[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu''. University of Hawaii Press, 1999. p148.</ref>