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Townsend Harris was the first Consul General of the United States to Japan, and the founder of the City University of New York (CUNY). He is particularly known for the US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, also known as the [[Harris Treaty]].

Townsend Harris was the first Consul General of the United States to Japan, and the founder of the City University of New York (CUNY). He is particularly known for the US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, also known as the [[Harris Treaty]].

Following [[Commodore Perry]]'s [[1854]] [[Convention of Kanagawa]], a US consulate was established at [[Shimoda]]. Harris arrived there in August [[1856]] with official documents from President [[Franklin Pierce]], and with the aims of concluding a commerce treaty with Japan. Harris became the first US consul general resident in Japan, and entered into negotiations with the shogunate's Lead Elder (''[[roju|rôjû]] shuza'') and ''gaikoku jimu toriatsukai'', [[Hotta Masayoshi]], to work towards a treaty which would open full formal diplomatic and commercial relations between the US and Japan. Harris is described as being "overbearing and arrogant," insisting on presenting a letter from President Pierce only to the shogun, and refusing to speak to any other officials as to the nature of the "important matter" which he intended to speak to the shogun about. This resulted in Hotta being even more resistant and oppositional than he might have been otherwise, and repeatedly rejecting Harris' requests to travel to [[Edo]]. In the end, however, with the arrival of another American warship, the Japanese relented. Harris traveled to Edo that December, was granted an audience with the shogun, and from that point forward, remained in Edo and entered more earnestly into negotiations with Hotta.<ref name=mitani>Mitani Hiroshi, David Noble (trans.), ''Escape from Impasse'', International House of Japan (2006), 268-272.</ref>

Following [[Commodore Perry]]'s [[1854]] [[Convention of Kanagawa]], a US consulate was established at [[Shimoda]]. While on his way to Japan in [[1856]] to take up his post as the first US consul general resident in Japan, Harris concluded a trade treaty with Siam; during his brief time in Siam, Harris is famously quoted as telling the Siamese king <blockquote>“The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any.  The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.”<ref>"[http://naturalhistory.si.edu/treasures/frame_exhibit_gallery1b_main.htm Harris Treaty of 1856]," [http://naturalhistory.si.edu/treasures/index.htm Royal Gifts from Thailand exhibition website], Smithsonian Institution, 2001.</ref></blockquote>

 

Following these events in Siam, Harris arrived in Japan on August 21, 1856 (7/21 on the Japanese calendar) aboard the ''[[San Jacinto]]'',<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 2 (1937), 216. The ''San Jacinto'' was the flagship of the US East India Squadron at this time, and was captained by [[Henry Bell]]. Harris was accompanied by commander of the East India Squadron, Commodore [[James Armstrong]].</ref> with official documents from President [[Franklin Pierce]], and with the aims of concluding a commerce treaty with Japan. It is fair to assume that his statements in Siam reflect the attitudes of the US government at this time regarding relations with Japan as well. Harris was given the temple of [[Gyokusen-ji]] in [[Shimoda]] to use as his residence; on 8/9 (on the Japanese calendar) he raised the American flag over the temple and declared it his consulate.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 2 (1937), 225.</ref>

 

Harris remained in Shimoda for some time, and negotiated a draft of a treaty with [[Shimoda bugyo|Shimoda bugyô]] [[Inoue Kiyonao]] and [[Nakamura Tokitsumu]], completing the exchange of ratification instruments on [[1857]]/int.5/6.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 2 (1937), 353.</ref> This treaty allowed for [[extraterritoriality]], and for some degree of residency, trading, and movement privileges for Americans within a set area centered on the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate.

 

While many ''daimyô'' and others supported the shogunate in allowing Harris to visit Edo, feeling it was unavoidable given the circumstances (some of them perhaps fearing greater foreign threats of violence should the shogunate resist), many others strongly opposed allowing the US to station a resident consul in the city; some went so far as to say that doing so would destroy the spirit of the people. At some point in late 1857, a failed attempt was made on Harris' life; the men responsible, residents of [[Mito han]], turned themselves in to Mito domain authorities on 11/27.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 2 (1937), 446-450.</ref>

 

It was not until some time later that Harris was able to enter into negotiations with the shogunate's Lead Elder (''[[roju|rôjû]] shuza'') and ''gaikoku jimu toriatsukai'', [[Hotta Masayoshi]], to work towards a treaty which would open full formal diplomatic and commercial relations between the US and Japan. Harris is described as being "overbearing and arrogant," insisting on presenting a letter from President Pierce only to the shogun, and refusing to speak to any other officials as to the nature of the "important matter" which he intended to speak to the shogun about. This resulted in Hotta being even more resistant and oppositional than he might have been otherwise, and repeatedly rejecting Harris' requests to travel to [[Edo]]. In the end, however, with the arrival of another American warship, the Japanese relented. Harris traveled to Edo that December, was granted an audience with the shogun, and from that point forward, remained in Edo and entered more earnestly into negotiations with Hotta.<ref name=mitani>Mitani Hiroshi, David Noble (trans.), ''Escape from Impasse'', International House of Japan (2006), 268-272.</ref>

Harris presented the Japanese with a draft treaty which provided for the exchange of formal diplomatic representatives & establishment of consular residences in their respective capitals; the opening of [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], [[Edo]], and three other ports to trade; and rights of Americans to freedom of movement and free trade within Japan. He insisted upon the acceptance of this draft of the treaty, and refused to entertain consideration of any drafts based on treaties Japan previously signed with the Dutch or the Russians. As a result, negotiations were dominated by Harris' demands and Japanese officials' resistance to those demands. In the end, the Japanese were successful only in rejecting the opening of Kyoto, and freedom of movement within the country for Americans other than diplomatic agents or consuls. Four ports, including Osaka and [[Hyogo no tsu|Hyôgo]], were opened to American ships, as was Edo, to residence and commercial activities of Americans, along with the establishment of an American consular residence in Edo.<ref name=mitani/>

Harris presented the Japanese with a draft treaty which provided for the exchange of formal diplomatic representatives & establishment of consular residences in their respective capitals; the opening of [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], [[Edo]], and three other ports to trade; and rights of Americans to freedom of movement and free trade within Japan. He insisted upon the acceptance of this draft of the treaty, and refused to entertain consideration of any drafts based on treaties Japan previously signed with the Dutch or the Russians. As a result, negotiations were dominated by Harris' demands and Japanese officials' resistance to those demands. In the end, the Japanese were successful only in rejecting the opening of Kyoto, and freedom of movement within the country for Americans other than diplomatic agents or consuls. Four ports, including Osaka and [[Hyogo no tsu|Hyôgo]], were opened to American ships, as was Edo, to residence and commercial activities of Americans, along with the establishment of an American consular residence in Edo.<ref name=mitani/>

==Other Reading==

==Other Reading==

*[[Oliver Statler]], ''Shimoda Story'', Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1971.

*[[Oliver Statler]], ''Shimoda Story'', Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1971.

[[Category:Bakumatsu|Harris]]

 

[[Category:Diplomats|Harris]]

[[Category:Bakumatsu]]

[[Category:Foreigners|Harris]]

[[Category:Diplomats]]

[[Category:Foreigners]]