Changes

Though a relatively large domain in total land area, much of this area is quite mountainous, and thus not suitable for rice cultivation; in addition to fishing and other maritime activities, much of the domain's basic agricultural production consisted of the growing of wheat, millet, beans and the like. [[Tea]], lumber, and paper also became prominent domainal exports in the Edo period.

Though a relatively large domain in total land area, much of this area is quite mountainous, and thus not suitable for rice cultivation; in addition to fishing and other maritime activities, much of the domain's basic agricultural production consisted of the growing of wheat, millet, beans and the like. [[Tea]], lumber, and paper also became prominent domainal exports in the Edo period.

The domain's [[castle town]] capital was at Kôchi, located roughly midway along the domain's coast.

The domain's [[castle town]] capital was at Kôchi, located roughly midway along the domain's coast. The city boasted a population of roughly 200,000 consistently throughout the period, while the population of the domain as a whole roughly doubled over the course of the period, from just under 275,000 according to a 1665 census, to over 500,000 in 1870 records. The most dramatic growth came in the late 17th century, with much of the 18th century seeing relative stagnation in demographic growth, due to recurrent famine, among other factors.<ref>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 60-61.</ref> At the end of the 18th century, there are believed to have been around 700 samurai households amongst the domain's population, and another 800 ''[[goshi|gôshi]]'' (rural samurai, below rank of right of audience with the lord) households. These ''gôshi'' were the highest-ranking retainers of the domain below full samurai status. Many were descendants of retainers of the [[Chosokabe clan|Chôsokabe clan]], while many others were commoners who had bought into the status. Though they lacked the right of audience with the lord of the domain, Tosa ''gôshi'' could wear two swords, and were permitted to ride in the annual military parade, the domain's most important political ritual event, provided they could afford to rent or own a horse. While many could not, others were comparatively wealthy, keeping up with the latest fashions and riding fine horses.<ref>[[Luke Roberts]], "Mori Yoshiki: Samurai Government Officer," in [[Anne Walthall]] (ed.), ''The Human Tradition in Modern Japan'', Scholarly Resources, Inc. (2002), 32-33.</ref>

==Edo Period==

==Edo Period==

The Yamauchi were not traditionally from Shikoku, but were transferred to Tosa by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] in return for their loyal service, including in the [[Battle of Sekigahara]]. The Yamauchi takeover of the territory was somewhat violent, involving the forcible pacification of armed resistance by those loyal to the [[Chosokabe clan|Chôsokabe]]. As a result, throughout the Edo period, even as late as the [[Bakumatsu]], many spoke of the Yamauchi as outsiders and invaders, and those who resisted or resented Yamauchi rule often claimed associations with the Chôsokabe.<ref name=merc36>Roberts, 33-36.</ref>

The Yamauchi were not traditionally from Shikoku, but were transferred to Tosa by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] in return for their loyal service, including in the [[Battle of Sekigahara]]. The Yamauchi takeover of the territory was somewhat violent, involving the forcible pacification of armed resistance by those loyal to the [[Chosokabe clan|Chôsokabe]]. As a result, throughout the Edo period, even as late as the [[Bakumatsu]], many spoke of the Yamauchi as outsiders and invaders, and those who resisted or resented Yamauchi rule often claimed associations with the Chôsokabe.<ref name=merc36>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 33-36.</ref>

The domain's governance and laws were based, in part, however, on the "[[100 Article Code of the Chosokabe|100 Article Code of the Chôsokabe]]," written by the Chôsokabe clan who ruled Tosa prior to the Yamauchi. Their ''kokudaka'' was based on land surveys performed by the Chôsokabe as well. Though Chôsokabe records indicate that land surveys performed in the 1590s discussed 248,3000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|tan]]'' of land, an area that could produce far more than the 98,000 ''koku'' ''[[kokudaka|omotedaka]]'' recognized by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], in [[1604]], Yamauchi officials recalculated, based on the Chôsokabe reports, without actually performing a new land survey, and submitted to the Tokugawa a reported ''kokudaka'' of 202,626 ''koku''. Only around 64% of this figure reflected rice cultivation, while the remaining portion was an estimated conversion into rice of the level of cultivation of other products, such as millet, wheat, and beans.<ref name=merc36/> What rice was produced was taxed heavily, as was typical throughout much of the archipelago at the time; tax rates as high as 60% were typical. Incentives were kept in place, however, to encourage the bringing of new land under cultivation; those who did this had to pay only 40% in taxes, and receiving exemptions from corvée labor obligations.<ref>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 50.</ref>

The domain's governance and laws were based, in part, however, on the "[[100 Article Code of the Chosokabe|100 Article Code of the Chôsokabe]]," written by the Chôsokabe clan who ruled Tosa prior to the Yamauchi. Their ''kokudaka'' was based on land surveys performed by the Chôsokabe as well. Though Chôsokabe records indicate that land surveys performed in the 1590s discussed 248,3000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|tan]]'' of land, an area that could produce far more than the 98,000 ''koku'' ''[[kokudaka|omotedaka]]'' recognized by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], in [[1604]], Yamauchi officials recalculated, based on the Chôsokabe reports, without actually performing a new land survey, and submitted to the Tokugawa a reported ''kokudaka'' of 202,626 ''koku''. Only around 64% of this figure reflected rice cultivation, while the remaining portion was an estimated conversion into rice of the level of cultivation of other products, such as millet, wheat, and beans.<ref name=merc36/> What rice was produced was taxed heavily, as was typical throughout much of the archipelago at the time; tax rates as high as 60% were typical. Incentives were kept in place, however, to encourage the bringing of new land under cultivation; those who did this had to pay only 40% in taxes, and receiving exemptions from corvée labor obligations.<ref>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 50.</ref>

Tosa was perhaps one of the most active domains in shipping activities, with a considerable proportion of the ships at Osaka in most periods being Tosa boats. Tosa boatmen were frequently obligated to transport goods to Osaka for the samurai, or to undertake other shipping or transportation tasks, to the extent that many complained it seriously cut into the time they could devote to their own livelihoods. In the early half of the Edo period, lumber and firewood were the chief export; however, as deforestation set in towards the mid-18th century, the domain's merchants shifted to smaller boats, and to shipping increasing amounts of eggs, paper, sugar, and tea.<ref name=merc47/>

Tosa was perhaps one of the most active domains in shipping activities, with a considerable proportion of the ships at Osaka in most periods being Tosa boats. Tosa boatmen were frequently obligated to transport goods to Osaka for the samurai, or to undertake other shipping or transportation tasks, to the extent that many complained it seriously cut into the time they could devote to their own livelihoods. In the early half of the Edo period, lumber and firewood were the chief export; however, as deforestation set in towards the mid-18th century, the domain's merchants shifted to smaller boats, and to shipping increasing amounts of eggs, paper, sugar, and tea.<ref name=merc47/>

Tosa also played a particularly prominent role in the lumber market in Osaka, especially in the 17th century. Early in the century, a canal dug at Osaka to help facilitate the on- and off-loading of lumber was dug by the Yamauchi, and in return Tosa lumber merchants operating in Osaka were given a number of special privileges; they operated their own wholesaler association, and were exempt from most of the fees paid by other lumber guild merchants. While much of the lumber was shipped out of Tosa along rivers that flowed south towards the Pacific, some major sources of lumber were shipped along rivers which passed north to the [[Inland Sea]], through [[Tokushima han]], making the journey much shorter for the shippers, but also requiring them to pay 20% in fees to Tokushima.<ref name=merc47/>

Tosa also played a particularly prominent role in the lumber market in Osaka, especially in the 17th century. Early in the century, a canal dug at Osaka to help facilitate the on- and off-loading of lumber was dug by the Yamauchi, and in return Tosa lumber merchants operating in Osaka were given a number of special privileges; they operated their own wholesaler association, and were exempt from most of the fees paid by other lumber guild merchants. While much of the lumber was shipped out of Tosa along rivers that flowed south towards the Pacific, some major sources of lumber were shipped along rivers which passed north to the [[Inland Sea]], through [[Tokushima han]], making the journey much shorter for the shippers, but also requiring them to pay 20% in fees to Tokushima.<ref name=merc47/> As early as the 1610s, feudal obligations to the shogunate, in the forms of corvée labor for public works projects, and ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'', drove the domain into deep debt. The problem was so severe that domain officials had difficulty finding Osaka or Edo merchants who were willing to lend to them, and by [[1620]], ''daimyô'' [[Yamauchi Tadayoshi]] was warned he was in danger of losing his domain. Through the imposition of a new corvée for his own peasants, and other economic reorganizational efforts, Tadayoshi mobilized the entire domain to dramatically expand the output of lumber, repaying the domain's debts almost overnight, and in fact generating a budget surplus by [[1627]]. This might be said to mark the start of a mercantilistic sense of the domain economy as a unified engine of production for the financial benefit of the entire domain. After this incident, Tadayoshi secured an agreement with the shogunate allowing Tosa to contribute lumber, instead of labor, from then on to shogunal construction projects. Tosa would remain heavily reliant on its lumber industry for at least the rest of the first half of the Edo period, until the supply of lumber began to decline.<ref>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 52-55.</ref> In the 19th century, the domain's chief exports came to be [[washi|paper]] and [[sugar]].<ref>Roberts, ''Mercantilism'', 190.</ref>

A particular type of [[Japanese long-tailed fowl]] called the ''onagadori'' was specially bred in Tosa, and its feathers were often used to decorate spears used in the lord's ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' processions, adding to the distinctiveness of Tosa's processions.

A particular type of [[Japanese long-tailed fowl]] called the ''onagadori'' was specially bred in Tosa, and its feathers were often used to decorate spears used in the lord's ''sankin kôtai'' processions, adding to the distinctiveness of Tosa's processions.

According to one account, Tosa was during the [[Edo period]] one of the strictest domains in terms of allowing individuals in and out of its borders, with only Satsuma, [[Awa han|Awa]], and [[Hizen han]] being identified as more tightly "closed."<ref>Munemasa Isoo 宗政五十緒, “Tachibana Nankei ‘Saiyūki’ to Edo kōki no kikō bungaku” 橘南谿『西遊記』と江戸後期の紀行文学, in ''Shin-Nihon koten bungaku taikei'' 新日本古典文学大系, vol. 98, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1991), 442.</ref>

According to one account, Tosa was during the [[Edo period]] one of the strictest domains in terms of allowing individuals in and out of its borders, with only Satsuma, [[Awa han|Awa]], and [[Hizen han]] being identified as more tightly "closed."<ref>Munemasa Isoo 宗政五十緒, “Tachibana Nankei ‘Saiyūki’ to Edo kōki no kikō bungaku” 橘南谿『西遊記』と江戸後期の紀行文学, in ''Shin-Nihon koten bungaku taikei'' 新日本古典文学大系, vol. 98, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1991), 442.</ref>

==Bakumatsu==

==Bakumatsu==

#[[Yamauchi Kazutoyo]] (d. [[1605]])

#[[Yamauchi Kazutoyo]] (d. [[1605]])

#[[Yamauchi Tadayoshi]] ([[1592]]-[[1664]])

#[[Yamauchi Tadayoshi]] ([[1592]]-[[1664]])

...

...

#[[Yamauchi Toyoteru]] (d. [[1848]])

#[[Yamauchi Toyoteru]] (d. [[1848]])

#[[Yamauchi Toyoatsu]] ([[1825]]-[[1854]])

#[[Yamauchi Toyoatsu]] ([[1825]]-[[1848]])

#[[Yamauchi Toyoshige]] (aka Yamauchi Yodo, [[1827]]-[[1872]])

#[[Yamauchi Toyoshige]] (aka Yamauchi Yodo, [[1827]]-[[1872]])

==References==

==References==

*[[Luke Roberts]], ''Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain: The Merchant Origins of Economic Nationalism in 18th-Century Tosa'', Cambridge University Press (2002).

*[[Luke Roberts]], ''Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain: The Merchant Origins of Economic Nationalism in 18th-Century Tosa'', Cambridge University Press (1998).

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[[Category:Han]]

[[Category:Han]]