Changes

==Style & Techniques==

==Style & Techniques==

These included ''[[raden]]'' (mother-of-pearl inlay), an engraved gold technique unique to Ryûkyû called ''chinkin''<!--沈金-->, gold leaf (''hakue''<!--箔絵-->), painting in gold (''kindeie'')<!--金泥絵-->, colored lacquers (''iro-urushie''), and lead-based pigments (''mitsudae''<!--密陀絵-->).

Lacquer sap taken from the tree is initially a white, milky color, and grows brown and then black as it is exposed to the air. Sometimes vermillion pigment is mixed with the lacquer to produce a red color. The lacquer is then placed under sunlight or artificial UV light to turn the blackening lacquer transparent, allowing the red color to show through; though the production of red lacquerwares is not unique to Ryûkyû, the strong sub-tropical sunshine there, combined with warm temperatures and high humidity are often cited as key factor making the Ryûkyûs particularly ideal for lacquerware production.<ref>"Shurijô Seiden ha sekai saidaikyû no urushi no ki. Shurijô no shûfuku, fukugen ga dekiru shokunin o sodatete moraitai"「首里城正殿は世界最大級の漆の器。首里城の修復、復元ができる職人を育ててもらいたい。」、Fee nu kaji 南ぬ風 9 (2008/10-12), 4.</ref>

''Hakue'' involved simply placing pieces of gold leaf atop lacquered surface, while ''chinkin'' techniques (lit. "submerged/sunken gold") involved carving into the lacquered surface, and then filling in the space with gold leaf or gold powder. Chinese techniques of lacquer carving never took off in Ryûkyû, but instead, techniques of building up designs in relief using a lacquer putty, called ''[[tsuikin]]''<!--堆錦-->, became a distinctive element of Ryukuyan lacquerwares. This technique is often said to have first been developed in [[1715]] by [[Higa Josho|Higa chikudun peechin Jôshô]]<!--比嘉乗昌-->, based on Chinese techniques.<ref name=miyagi116/>. However, scholar [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1933-2005)|Tokugawa Yoshinobu]]<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1933-2005) of the Owari Tokugawa line; not to be confused with the last shogun, [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] (d. 1913), of the Mito Tokugawa line.</ref> indicates that the technique was already employed in Ryûkyû prior to that time.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, viii-ix.</ref>

 

''Hakue'' involved simply placing pieces of gold leaf atop lacquered surface, while ''chinkin'' techniques (lit. "submerged/sunken gold") involved carving into the lacquered surface, and then filling in the space with gold leaf or gold powder. The latter ''chinkin'' technique is said to have seen its peak in the 15th-16th centuries, declining after the 1609 invasion.<ref name=feenukaji9-4>"Shurijô seiden ha seikai saidaikyû...", 4.</ref>

 

Chinese techniques of lacquer carving never took off in Ryûkyû, but instead, techniques of building up designs in relief using a lacquer putty, called ''[[tsuikin]]''<!--堆錦-->, became a distinctive element of Ryukuyan lacquerwares. This technique is often said to have first been developed in [[1715]] by [[Higa Josho|Higa chikudun peechin Jôshô]]<!--比嘉乗昌-->, based on Chinese techniques.<ref name=miyagi116/>. However, scholar [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1933-2005)|Tokugawa Yoshinobu]]<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1933-2005) of the Owari Tokugawa line; not to be confused with the last shogun, [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] (d. 1913), of the Mito Tokugawa line.</ref> indicates that the technique was already employed in Ryûkyû prior to that time.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, viii-ix.</ref>

Mother-of-pearl inlay techniques, known as ''raden'', employed thin slices of the [[turban shell]] (J: ''yakôgai''; ''Lunatica marmorata''),<ref name=toku3/> a sea creature native to Ryukyuan waters, to insert shimmering, rainbow-colored designs into lacquered pieces. ''Raden'' is traditionally said to have first been introduced to Ryûkyû in [[1636]] by [[Zeng Guoji]] (J: Sô Kuniyoshi)<!--曾国吉--> from [[Fujian province|Fujian]], who was then appointed ''kaizuri-shi'' or ''aogai-shi'' ("master of lacquerware") in [[1642]].　Further, the technique for preparing the shells<!--煮貝の法--> is said to have been introduced by [[Omitake Hyobu|Ômitake chikudun peechin Hyôbu]]<!--大見武憑武--> in [[1690]], who had studied such techniques in [[Hangzhou]]. <ref name=miyagi116>Miyagi Eishô 宮城栄昌, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'' 琉球使者の江戸上り, Tokyo: Daiichi Shobô (1982), 115-116.</ref> However, documentary evidence and extant objects show that ''raden'' techniques were known in Ryûkyû by the end of the 14th century, if not earlier. Turban shell was a major export of the [[Amami Islands|Amami]] and Ryûkyû Islands in the 11th century and very likely for centuries prior to that.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu, 1050-1650'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 22.</ref> Mother-of-pearl-inlay objects were regularly among tribute goods or gifts given by the Ryukyuan court to the courts of China and Japan from the 1430s onward, and ''raden'' objects as well as the raw mother-of-pearl materials were among the kingdom's prominent trade goods. The export of raw mother-of-pearl was limited between [[1436]] and [[1596]], but operated on a large scale previously, and afterward.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, vii.</ref>

Mother-of-pearl inlay techniques, known as ''raden'', employed thin slices of the [[turban shell]] (J: ''yakôgai''; ''Lunatica marmorata''),<ref name=toku3/> a sea creature native to Ryukyuan waters, to insert shimmering, rainbow-colored designs into lacquered pieces. ''Raden'' is traditionally said to have first been introduced to Ryûkyû in [[1636]] by [[Zeng Guoji]] (J: Sô Kuniyoshi)<!--曾国吉--> from [[Fujian province|Fujian]], who was then appointed ''kaizuri-shi'' or ''aogai-shi'' ("master of lacquerware") in [[1642]].　Further, the technique for preparing the shells<!--煮貝の法--> is said to have been introduced by [[Omitake Hyobu|Ômitake chikudun peechin Hyôbu]]<!--大見武憑武--> in [[1690]], who had studied such techniques in [[Hangzhou]]. <ref name=miyagi116>Miyagi Eishô 宮城栄昌, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'' 琉球使者の江戸上り, Tokyo: Daiichi Shobô (1982), 115-116.</ref> However, documentary evidence and extant objects show that ''raden'' techniques were known in Ryûkyû by the end of the 14th century, if not earlier. Turban shell was a major export of the [[Amami Islands|Amami]] and Ryûkyû Islands in the 11th century and very likely for centuries prior to that.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu, 1050-1650'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 22.</ref> Mother-of-pearl-inlay objects were regularly among tribute goods or gifts given by the Ryukyuan court to the courts of China and Japan from the 1430s onward, and ''raden'' objects as well as the raw mother-of-pearl materials were among the kingdom's prominent trade goods. The export of raw mother-of-pearl was limited between [[1436]] and [[1596]], but operated on a large scale previously, and afterward.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, vii.</ref>

==History==

==History==

It is often said that the lacquer tree was never native to Ryûkyû, or even that the tree could not survive in the Ryukyuan environment. This notion was advanced in works such as the [[1889]] ''Ryûkyû shikki kô'' ("Thoughts on Ryukyu lacquer") by Ishizawa Hyôgo, and continues to be widely repeated. However, the government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom actively taxed the growing of lacquer trees beginning in [[1635]], later exempting the trees from taxation beginning in [[1669]]; other evidence meanwhile shows that lacquer trees were grown in the islands even before the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion by Satsuma]].<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, ii.</ref> While Ryûkyû is believed to have also imported raw lacquer from Japan as early as the 1420s, records from that same decade also show examples of [[Chai Shan|Chinese envoys]] purchasing raw lacquer natively grown in Ryûkyû.<ref name=toku4>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, iv.</ref>

It is often said that the lacquer tree was never native to Ryûkyû, or even that the tree could not survive in the Ryukyuan environment. This notion was advanced in works such as the [[1889]] ''Ryûkyû shikki kô'' ("Thoughts on Ryukyu lacquer") by Ishizawa Hyôgo, and continues to be widely repeated. However, the government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom actively taxed the growing of lacquer trees beginning in [[1635]], later exempting the trees from taxation beginning in [[1669]]; other evidence meanwhile shows that lacquer trees were grown in the islands even before the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion by Satsuma]].<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, ii.</ref> While Ryûkyû is believed to have also imported raw lacquer from Japan as early as the 1420s, records from that same decade also show examples of [[Chai Shan|Chinese envoys]] purchasing raw lacquer natively grown in Ryûkyû,<ref name=toku4>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, iv.</ref> as well as Ryukyuan lacquerwares.<ref name=feenukaji9-4/>

The earliest extant lacquerware objects from Ryûkyû include a number of funerary urns from the [[Momojana tombs]], located near [[Nakijin gusuku]] in the northern portion of [[Okinawa Island]]. Dating to around [[1500]], these are said to be the tombs of a number of members of the [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|Shuri nobility]] who fled north during what they felt to be the "tyrannical" reign of King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] (r. [[1461]]-[[1469]]). A series of lacquerware coffers in a private collection on [[Kumejima]], bearing designs similar to those at [[Tamaudun]] (built [[1501]]), and said to have been gifts from the court of King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]] in 1500, are also among the earliest known extant examples of Ryukyuan lacquerware.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, iv-v.</ref>

The earliest extant lacquerware objects from Ryûkyû include a number of funerary urns from the [[Momojana tombs]], located near [[Nakijin gusuku]] in the northern portion of [[Okinawa Island]]. Dating to around [[1500]], these are said to be the tombs of a number of members of the [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|Shuri nobility]] who fled north during what they felt to be the "tyrannical" reign of King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] (r. [[1461]]-[[1469]]). A series of lacquerware coffers in a private collection on [[Kumejima]], bearing designs similar to those at [[Tamaudun]] (built [[1501]]), and said to have been gifts from the court of King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]] in 1500, are also among the earliest known extant examples of Ryukyuan lacquerware.<ref>Tokugawa Yoshinobu, iv-v.</ref> The container in which the bones of King [[Eiso]] (d. [[1299]]) are entombed is also said to have been lacquered; if true, this would extend the earliest known production of lacquerwares in Ryûkyû back several centuries.<ref name=feenukaji9-4/>

According to some accounts, Ryukyuan lacquerwares were primarily red and featured particular patterns and designs. Following the invasion, Japanese demand for Ryukyuan lacquerware increased significantly, and the ''[[kaizuri bugyo|kaizuri bugyôsho]]'' (Office of Lacquerwares) within the royal government was expanded; most Japanese customers were more interested in works they could pass off as "Chinese-style" (''[[karamono]]''), and so styles and techniques adapted to some extent in order to cater to their tastes and desires. Ryukyuan lacquerware artists were increasingly sent to China to study Chinese styles and techniques. Late 20th to early 21st century lacquerware master [[Maeda Koin|Maeda Kôin]] said that the designs came to have less meaning or significance, but to increasingly be designs used simply to appeal to the Japanese demand, including landscapes, dragons, phoenixes, and other creatures, as well as peonies and imaginary islands. Many of these works were inscribed with Chinese phrases, signatures, and dates so as to better pass them off as Chinese or Chinese-style.<ref>"Shurijô Seiden ha sekai saidaikyû no urushi no ki. Shurijô no shûfuku, fukugen ga dekiru shokunin o sodatete moraitai"「首里城正殿は世界最大級の漆の器。首里城の修復、復元ができる職人を育ててもらいたい。」、''Fee nu kaji'' 南ぬ風 9 (2008/10-12), 3.</ref>

According to some accounts, Ryukyuan lacquerwares were primarily red and featured particular patterns and designs. Following the invasion, Japanese demand for Ryukyuan lacquerware increased significantly, and the ''[[kaizuri bugyo|kaizuri bugyôsho]]'' (Office of Lacquerwares) within the royal government was expanded; most Japanese customers were more interested in works they could pass off as "Chinese-style" (''[[karamono]]''), and so styles and techniques adapted to some extent in order to cater to their tastes and desires. Ryukyuan lacquerware artists were increasingly sent to China to study Chinese styles and techniques. Late 20th to early 21st century lacquerware master [[Maeda Koin|Maeda Kôin]] said that the designs came to have less meaning or significance, but to increasingly be designs used simply to appeal to the Japanese demand, including landscapes, dragons, phoenixes, and other creatures, as well as peonies and imaginary islands. Many of these works were inscribed with Chinese phrases, signatures, and dates so as to better pass them off as Chinese or Chinese-style.<ref>"Shurijô Seiden ha sekai saidaikyû no urushi no ki. Shurijô no shûfuku, fukugen ga dekiru shokunin o sodatete moraitai"「首里城正殿は世界最大級の漆の器。首里城の修復、復元ができる職人を育ててもらいたい。」、''Fee nu kaji'' 南ぬ風 9 (2008/10-12), 3.</ref>

Even so, Maeda has also noted that some lacquerware objects in the collection of the [[Urasoe Museum of Art]] dating back some 500 years reflect a strong consistency in the tradition over the centuries - i.e. little change throughout the early modern period.<ref name=feenukaji9-4>"Shurijô seiden ha seikai saidaikyû...", 4.</ref>

Even so, Maeda has also noted that some lacquerware objects in the collection of the [[Urasoe Museum of Art]] dating back some 500 years reflect a strong consistency in the tradition over the centuries - i.e. little change throughout the early modern period.<ref name=feenukaji9-4/>

After the [[Ryukyu shobun|fall of the Ryukyu Kingdom]], beginning around [[1882]], merchants from [[Osaka]], [[Kagoshima]], and elsewhere began to enter the Okinawan market in increasing numbers; catering to these merchants, Okinawan lacquerware artists began to shift from imitating Chinese-style works to producing vermillion (red) lacquerwares decorated with stereotypical Ryukyuan designs desired by mainland Japanese customers.<ref name=feenukaji9-4/>

After the [[Ryukyu shobun|fall of the Ryukyu Kingdom]], beginning around [[1882]], merchants from [[Osaka]], [[Kagoshima]], and elsewhere began to enter the Okinawan market in increasing numbers; catering to these merchants, Okinawan lacquerware artists began to shift from imitating Chinese-style works to producing vermillion (red) lacquerwares decorated with stereotypical Ryukyuan designs desired by mainland Japanese customers.<ref name=feenukaji9-4/>