Changes

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated by some scholars at 80% for men, and 50% for women;<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref> including both urban and rural populations across the entire archipelago, the male literacy figures may have been closer to 40-50%.<ref>Schirokauer, et al. ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 137.</ref>

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated by some scholars at 80% for men, and 50% for women;<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref> including both urban and rural populations across the entire archipelago, the male literacy figures may have been closer to 40-50%.<ref>Schirokauer, et al. ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 137.</ref>

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[[File:Baren.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Woodblock carving tools, and ''baren'' (used for rubbing the image onto the paper). Santa Barbara Museum of Art.]]

[[File:Baren.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Woodblock carving tools, and ''baren'' (used for rubbing the image onto the paper). Santa Barbara Museum of Art.]]

Publishers would often initiate projects, deciding on themes and hiring illustrators or print designers. The illustrators would then submit their designs to the publisher, who would then take over much of the remainder of the process. A highly skilled professional ''hangiya'' (板木屋, block-carver) would lay the design over the block - sometimes using a reproduction of the design created for this purpose by a copyist or ''hanshitagaki'' (版下書) - and use that ''shita-e'' (下絵, "under-drawing") as a guideline for carving out key blocks, showing just the monochrome outlines. ''Hangiya'' were professional artisans, and highly organized as such in craft guilds, working most often with publishers in a manner akin to independent contractors; some of the largest publishing houses had their own in-house blockcarvers, however. Once these initial blocks were cut, a printer (also a professional skilled artisan) would produce a number of impressions from the key block, and send them to the illustrator, or the publisher, who then indicated which colors should be applied and where. These drafts were sent to the blockcarver once more, who now carved separate blocks for each color, sending those to the printer, to produce the actual final commercial copies to be sold.<ref>Gallery labels, "Making Woodblock Prints," Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, December 2012.</ref> ''Kento'', or registration marks, were a very simple but key innovation allowing for more successful multi-color printing; a small L-shaped mark was carved into the blocks, allowing the paper to be properly lined up on the blocks, even as a single printed sheet of paper was moved between many different blocks, as different colors (different layers) were added.

Publishers would often initiate projects, deciding on themes and hiring illustrators or print designers. The illustrators would then submit their designs to the publisher, who would then take over much of the remainder of the process. A highly skilled professional ''hangiya'' (板木屋, block-carver) would lay the design over the block - sometimes using a reproduction of the design created for this purpose by a copyist or ''hanshitagaki'' (版下書) - and use that ''shita-e'' (下絵, "under-drawing") as a guideline for carving out key blocks, showing just the monochrome outlines. ''Hangiya'' were professional artisans, and highly organized as such in craft guilds, working most often with publishers in a manner akin to independent contractors; some of the largest publishing houses had their own in-house blockcarvers, however. Once these initial blocks were cut, a printer (also a professional skilled artisan) would produce a number of impressions from the key block, and send them to the illustrator, or the publisher, who then indicated which colors should be applied and where. These drafts were sent to the blockcarver once more, who now carved separate blocks for each color, sending those to the printer, to produce the actual final commercial copies to be sold.<ref>Gallery labels, "Making Woodblock Prints," Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, December 2012.</ref> ''Kentô'' (見当), or registration marks, were a very simple but key innovation allowing for more successful multi-color printing; a small L-shaped mark was carved into the blocks, allowing the paper to be properly lined up on the blocks, even as a single printed sheet of paper was moved between many different blocks, as different colors (different layers) were added.

Originally, cheaper and softer woods were used, and designs were cut more deeply, but the use of more expensive woods such as cherry, carved more shallowly into much thinner woodblocks was spurred by the popularity of prints by [[Suzuki Harunobu]] in the late 1760s in the new multicolor ''[[nishiki-e]]'' mode that he pioneered; by 1800 or so, materials and techniques previously used only for ''[[surimono]]'' and other much more expensive and exclusive publications came to be used more widely, and the costs of producing and buying works produced in this manner dropped dramatically. [[Cedar]] (''sugi'') continued to be used at times, but this was more expensive and more difficult to carve. The [[catalpa]] wood (梓, J: ''azusa'', C: ''zǐ'') typically used in China was never commonly used in Japan, but the character continued to be used to refer to the process of printing or publishing. For example, while most books used the character 版 ("printing") in the colophon to indicate the date, place, and/or publisher, many used the verb 上梓 (''jôshi''), meaning "to print" or "to publish."

Originally, cheaper and softer woods were used, and designs were cut more deeply, but the use of more expensive woods such as cherry, carved more shallowly into much thinner woodblocks was spurred by the popularity of prints by [[Suzuki Harunobu]] in the late 1760s in the new multicolor ''[[nishiki-e]]'' mode that he pioneered; by 1800 or so, materials and techniques previously used only for ''[[surimono]]'' and other much more expensive and exclusive publications came to be used more widely, and the costs of producing and buying works produced in this manner dropped dramatically. [[Cedar]] (''sugi'') continued to be used at times, but this was more expensive and more difficult to carve. The [[catalpa]] wood (梓, J: ''azusa'', C: ''zǐ'') typically used in China was never commonly used in Japan, but the character continued to be used to refer to the process of printing or publishing. For example, while most books used the character 版 ("printing") in the colophon to indicate the date, place, and/or publisher, many used the verb 上梓 (''jôshi''), meaning "to print" or "to publish."

===Pigments===

===Pigments===

For the most part, illustrators, printers, and publishers chose colors which would seep into the paper and become fixed, rather than sitting atop the surface of the paper, where they might easily flake off. That said, in more expensive, higher-quality, books, certain materials such as gold, silver, and mica, along with thicker pigments which did sit atop the surface were used, and affixed using a hide-glue called ''[[nikawa]]'' (the same material used to suspend and affix the [[mineral pigments]] in traditional painting).

For the most part, illustrators, printers, and publishers chose colors which would seep into the paper and become fixed, rather than sitting atop the surface of the paper, where they might easily flake off. That said, in more expensive, higher-quality, books, certain materials such as gold, silver, and mica, along with thicker pigments which did sit atop the surface were used, and affixed using a hide-glue called ''[[nikawa]]'' (the same material used to suspend and affix the [[mineral pigments]] in traditional painting). Other ornamental printing techniques included ''karazuri'' (lit. "empty printing"), in which patterns were embossed into the paper without any ink or color.

Some of the most common pigments used in Tokugawa period printed materials include:

Some of the most common pigments used in Tokugawa period printed materials include:

*[[Printing in China]]

*[[Printing in China]]

*[[Wahon]] ("Japanese books") for information on bookbinding and book formats

*[[Wahon]] ("Japanese books") for information on bookbinding and book formats

[[Category:Edo Period]]

[[Category:Edo Period]]

[[Category:Culture]]

[[Category:Culture]]

[[Category:Economics]]

[[Category:Economics]]