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[[Image:Hogai-hibo kannon.jpg|right|thumb|400px|''Hibo Kannon'' ("[[Kannon]] as Merciful Mother") by [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]], [[1883]]. [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]]

[[File:Hibo-kannon.jpg|right|thumb|500px|''Hibo Kannon'' ("[[Kannon]] as Merciful Mother") by [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]], [[1883]]. [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]]

*''Japanese'': 日本画 ''(Nihonga)''

*''Japanese'': 日本画 ''(Nihonga)''

''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

In all of this, ''Nihonga'' bears similarities with ''[[shin hanga]]'', which might truly be described as the prints equivalent to what ''Nihonga'' is in the realm of painting. ''Shin hanga'' employed elements of ''ukiyo-e'' style and process, combining these with shadows, perspective, a degree of realism, and other elements of Western art, to depict scenes of traditional Japan, especially for Western audiences.

In all of this, ''Nihonga'' bears similarities with ''[[shin hanga]]'', which might truly be described as the prints equivalent to what ''Nihonga'' is in the realm of painting. ''Shin hanga'' employed elements of ''ukiyo-e'' style and process, combining these with shadows, perspective, a degree of realism, and other elements of Western art, to depict scenes of traditional Japan, especially for Western audiences. Where Edo period painters simply produced "Japanese" art by default, likely giving little thought to whether their work was "Japanese," or in what ways or for what purposes it was "Japanese," from the Meiji period onwards, ''Nihonga'' painters, and indeed perhaps all Japanese artists, have had no choice but to be conscious of these questions. As art historian [[Chelsea Foxwell]] has written, Japanese painting became "bifurcated between an authentic premodern corpus (Japanese painting) and ... Japanese-''style'' painting, or consciously Japanese painting."<ref name=foxwell2>Chelsea Foxwell, ''Making Modern Japanese-Style Painting'', U Chicago Press (2015), 2.</ref>

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

==Background==

==Background==

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past." It was developed also, in part, out of a desire to establish a "national" form of painting.

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past." It was developed also, in part, out of a desire to establish a "national" form of painting, as well as from a need, simply, to have a term to identify or categorize traditional (or traditional-style, neo-traditional, or traditional-inspired) Japanese painting. Prior to the emergence of the term ''Nihonga'' in the 1880s, there had been no single umbrella term to refer to all the various schools and styles of Japanese painting, altogether as a single category; arguably, perhaps, there had been no need for such a term. But, "it was not just - or not even - that paintings themselves were changing [at this time]. Even when paintings stayed the same, there were notable changes in artists, viewers, viewing environments, and the words surrounding painting."<ref name=foxwell2/> Thus, while ''Nihonga'' was certainly an art movement unto itself, it was also a broader category which was created out of social-cultural necessity of its time. The term also emerged, in part, simply as a means of translating Westerners' references to "Japanese painting," which they, from their foreign perspective, saw as a single overarching category.<ref>Foxwell, 5.</ref>

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga''; art historian [[Ellen Conant]] has argued that the efforts of Fenollosa and Okakura polarized unnecessarily,<ref>Conant. p14.</ref> an influence that lasted at least until [[1907]], when Okakura served as a judge at the first [[Bunten|Ministry of Education Juried Exhibition]]. Yet, at the same time, many artists still had their feet in both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' circles, or practiced one before switching to the other.

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga''; art historian [[Ellen Conant]] has argued that the efforts of Fenollosa and Okakura polarized unnecessarily,<ref>Conant. p14.</ref> an influence that lasted at least until [[1907]], when Okakura served as a judge at the first [[Bunten|Ministry of Education Juried Exhibition]]. Yet, at the same time, many artists still had their feet in both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' circles, or practiced one before switching to the other.

==History==

==History==

===Origins===

===Origins===

Though growing out of a fusion or synthesis of a number of painting traditions each of which were centuries old, the seeds for the ''Nihonga'' movement can be said to have been sown by the emergence of that which it railed against.  

Though growing out of a fusion or synthesis of a number of painting traditions each of which were centuries old, the seeds for the ''Nihonga'' movement can be said to have been sown by the emergence of that which it railed against.

A group called the [[Ryuchikai|Ryûchikai]], or "Dragon Pond Society," had been formed in [[1878]] by [[Kuki Ryuichi|Kuki Ryûichi]] and a number of other officials involved in Japan's participation in [[international expositions]] to promote the production of the type of works highly valued by Westerners, so as to enhance Japan's prestige and acceptance as a "modern" nation-state and equal member of the international community.

A group called the [[Ryuchikai|Ryûchikai]], or "Dragon Pond Society," had been formed in [[1878]] by [[Kuki Ryuichi|Kuki Ryûichi]] and a number of other officials involved in Japan's participation in [[international expositions]] to promote the production of the type of works highly valued by Westerners - that is, [[yoga|oil paintings]], in certain styles, and of certain subjects - so as to enhance Japan's prestige and acceptance as a "modern" nation-state and equal member of the international community. This was compounded by government interest in Western artistic techniques as a means of capturing the world realistically, something with profound practical utility in a variety of fields, including engineering and documentary purposes.

[[Ernest Fenollosa]], who had come to Japan in 1878, along with his former student [[Okakura Kakuzo|Okakura Kakuzô]], founded the ''[[Kangakai]]'' ("Painting Appreciation Society") in [[1884]] after presenting a highly critical speech to the Ryûchikai two years earlier. The pair, along with a number of artists and others who constituted this Society, worked to combat the shift to Western modes of art, and to promote an appreciation of the beauty of the traditional arts, and the value of Japan maintaining or creating its own distinctive national tradition of painting, rather than simply emulating that of the West.<ref>Though credited with an extremely influential role in the promotion of the appreciation of Japanese artistic traditions at this time, Fenollosa and Okakura were not the only ones, nor the first ones, to advocate such positions. Italian engraver [[Edoardo Chiossone]] had suggested to the [[Meiji government]] a few years prior to Fenollosa's arrival in Japan that the government ought to perform surveys of historical sites, ancient monuments, and artistic treasures.</ref>

 

Credit for encouraging this shift is usually given chiefly to [[Ernest Fenollosa]], who had come to Japan in 1878, along with his former student [[Okakura Kakuzo|Okakura Kakuzô]], though surely such a change involved a complex set of actors and influences beyond the actions of Fenollosa and Okakura alone. Indeed, some scholars have pointed out that the narrative of a Japanese art world pendulum eagerly embracing Western-style painting, and then swinging back to greater appreciation or concern for maintaining native traditions, is too simplistic. In reality, throughout the early Meiji period (as in earlier and later periods as well), there was a diversity of opinion, with both traditionalists and modernists of various stripes (as well as people who might be said to fall in between) being quite active throughout, and merely ebbing and waning in prominence or influence.<ref>Foxwell, 3-4.</ref>

 

Still, Fenollosa and Okakura were among those who were quite influential. The two founded the ''[[Kangakai]]'' ("Painting Appreciation Society") in [[1884]] after presenting a highly critical speech to the Ryûchikai two years earlier. The pair, along with a number of artists and others who constituted this Society, worked to combat the shift to Western modes of art, and to promote an appreciation of the beauty of the traditional arts, and the value of Japan maintaining or creating its own distinctive national tradition of painting, rather than simply emulating that of the West.<ref>Though credited with an extremely influential role in the promotion of the appreciation of Japanese artistic traditions at this time, Fenollosa and Okakura were not the only ones, nor the first ones, to advocate such positions. Italian engraver [[Edoardo Chiossone]] had suggested to the [[Meiji government]] a few years prior to Fenollosa's arrival in Japan that the government ought to perform surveys of historical sites, ancient monuments, and artistic treasures.</ref>

Fenollosa did not regard ''ukiyo-e'' or certain other styles particularly highly, but was strongly interested in [[Buddhist art]] and in Kanô school painting, and worked with [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]] to create a new national form of Japanese painting, which would incorporate Western techniques such as shading and modeling of forms, light and shadow, and linear perspective, and would focus on inherently Japanese themes which might appeal throughout the country. He focused especially on Buddhist imagery, believing this to be something which was innately Japanese and meaningful throughout Japan. Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" (1883) and "Fudô Myôô" (1887) are two examples of this style envisioned and championed by Fenollosa.

Fenollosa did not regard ''ukiyo-e'' or certain other styles particularly highly, but was strongly interested in [[Buddhist art]] and in Kanô school painting, and worked with [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]] to create a new national form of Japanese painting, which would incorporate Western techniques such as shading and modeling of forms, light and shadow, and linear perspective, and would focus on inherently Japanese themes which might appeal throughout the country. He focused especially on Buddhist imagery, believing this to be something which was innately Japanese and meaningful throughout Japan. Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" (1883) and "Fudô Myôô" (1887) are two examples of this style envisioned and championed by Fenollosa.

Most of the most prominent ''Nihonga'' artists traveled, studied, and showed abroad. To name just a few examples, Kanô Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" was shown at the Paris Salon in 1883, and Yokoyama Taikan and [[Hishida Shunso|Hishida Shunsô]] traveled to India in [[1903]] and to Europe and the US afterward, while [[Shimomura Kanzan]] studied in England, funded by the Ministry of Education.

Most of the most prominent ''Nihonga'' artists traveled, studied, and showed abroad. To name just a few examples, Kanô Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" was shown at the Paris Salon in 1883, and Yokoyama Taikan and [[Hishida Shunso|Hishida Shunsô]] traveled to India in [[1903]] and to Europe and the US afterward, while [[Shimomura Kanzan]] studied in England, funded by the Ministry of Education.

Based on the Western model of the Salon, or juried exhibition, the [[Bunten]], or Ministry of Education Exhibition, was established in 1907. This and other exhibitions, many created as alternatives to the Bunten, as many artists saw themselves excluded due to political rivalries and officials' tastes, ran annually or semi-annually, becoming the chief venues for national art. Artists throughout the country strove to be seen at the Bunten, or other national shows, and more local shows declined.

Based on the Western model of the Salon, or juried exhibition, the [[Bunten]], or Ministry of Education Exhibition, was established in 1907. This and other exhibitions, many created as alternatives to the Bunten, as many artists saw themselves excluded due to political rivalries and officials' tastes, ran annually or semi-annually, becoming the chief venues for national art. Artists throughout the country strove to be seen at the Bunten, or other national shows, and more local shows declined. The Bunten was initially divided into sections for ''Nihonga'', ''yôga'', and sculpture, with separate judges (and display galleries) for each section. Many scholars identify this as having impeded creative development and cross-interactions between traditional and Western styles and techniques, and as having polarized the art world unnecessarily, forcing artists (and individual works) to be seen as either ''Nihonga'' or ''yôga'', one side or the other.

 

The Bunten was initially divided into sections for ''Nihonga'', ''yôga'', and sculpture, with separate judges (and display galleries) for each section. Many scholars identify this as having impeded creative development and cross-interactions between traditional and Western styles and techniques, and as having polarized the art world unnecessarily, forcing artists (and individual works) to be seen as either ''Nihonga'' or ''yôga'', one side or the other.

Some famous paintings of this period include the hanging scroll landscape "White Clouds, Red Leaves" (1890) by Hashimoto Gahô and "Fallen Leaves" (1909) by Hishida Shunsô, a pair of two-panel folding screens (''[[byobu|byôbu]]''), both of which display traditional themes in traditional formats in traditional media, with a combination of new, Western techniques and stylistic elements with those taken from the Kanô, Rinpa, and other schools. Yokoyama Taikan's "Floating Lights" (1909), a hanging scroll painting in mineral pigments on silk, employs traditional ''[[bijinga]]'' conventions to depict a scene in India, featuring Indian women in Indian garments (albeit with very pale faces and Japanese-looking features).  

Some famous paintings of this period include the hanging scroll landscape "White Clouds, Red Leaves" (1890) by Hashimoto Gahô and "Fallen Leaves" (1909) by Hishida Shunsô, a pair of two-panel folding screens (''[[byobu|byôbu]]''), both of which display traditional themes in traditional formats in traditional media, with a combination of new, Western techniques and stylistic elements with those taken from the Kanô, Rinpa, and other schools. Yokoyama Taikan's "Floating Lights" (1909), a hanging scroll painting in mineral pigments on silk, employs traditional ''[[bijinga]]'' conventions to depict a scene in India, featuring Indian women in Indian garments (albeit with very pale faces and Japanese-looking features).  

===The Second Generation: 1910s-1930s===

===The Second Generation: 1910s-1930s===

After Okakura's death in 1913, Taikan, Shimomura Kanzan, and a number of other artists took over as the leaders of the movement in Tokyo. With Gahô and Shunsô also having died by this time, Taikan lost influence, and was expelled from the jury of the Bunten in 1914. Revitalizing the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'', he and his fellows then organized, alternative annual juried exhibitions known as the [[Inten]].

After Okakura's death in 1913, Taikan, Shimomura Kanzan, and a number of other artists took over as the leaders of the movement in Tokyo. With Gahô and Shunsô also having died by this time, Taikan lost influence, and was expelled from the jury of the Bunten in 1914. Revitalizing the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'', he and his fellows then organized, alternative annual juried exhibitions known as the [[Inten]].

==Wartime Nihonga (1930s-1945)==

==Wartime Nihonga (1930s-1945)==

 

The extent to which one artist or another supported the militarism of the 1930s-early 40s remains hotly debated, as can be said equally for writers and countless other members of society. Beginning in the late 1930s, art exhibitions were limited almost exclusively to those organized by the government and showing patriotic works. Many prominent ''Nihonga'' artists continued to produce works during this time, shifting to patriotic themes such as depictions of [[Mt. Fuji]], yet, for many of them it is argued that to one extent or another they were opposed to the war and the militaristic direction the country had taken, but produced these sorts of works in order to make a living, and to avoid attracting attention as detractors. It is of course natural that artists would, after the war, claim they never supported it to begin with, for fear of being ostracized or seen in a bad light in the reversed political climate of the post-war; and it is of course natural for scholars, art critics, and the like to want to believe that their favorite pre-war artists could not be implicated in the ultranationalism and militarism of the wartime period.

The extent to which one artist or another supported the militarism of the 1930s-early 40s remains hotly debated, as can be said equally for writers and countless other members of society. Beginning in the late 1930s, art exhibitions were limited almost exclusively to those organized by the government and showing patriotic works. Many prominent ''Nihonga'' artists continued to produce works during this time, shifting to patriotic themes such as depictions of [[Mt. Fuji]], yet, for many of them it is argued that to one extent or another they were opposed to the war and the militaristic direction the country had taken, but produced these sorts of works in order to make a living, and to avoid attracting attention as detractors. It is of course natural that artists would, after the war, claim they never supported it to begin with, for fear of being ostracized or seen in a bad light in the reversed political climate of the post-war; and it is of course natural for scholars, art critics, and the like to want to believe that their favorite pre-war artists could not be implicated in the ultranationalism and militarism of the wartime period.

==Post-War Nihonga (1945 to present)==

==Post-War Nihonga (1945 to present)==

In the years immediately after the end of World War II, artists sought to put the ultra-nationalism and propagandistic implications of the previous decade or so behind them, and to return to what ''Nihonga'' had been in the pre-war. Kawabata Ryûshi made a number of trips within Japan, including retracing the famous journey recounted in [[Matsuo Basho|Matsuo Bashô's]] collection of [[haiku]] "''[[Oku no Hosomichi|Ôku no Hosomichi]]''", and painting scenes of historical or cultural importance, such as the Yômeimon of [[Nikko Toshogu|Nikkô Tôshôgû]] and [[Ama-no-Hashidate]], recalling pre-war works such as Kobayashi Kokei's 1916 painting of the Byôdôin, entitled "Amida-dô", mentioned above.

In the years immediately after the end of World War II, artists sought to put the ultra-nationalism and propagandistic implications of the previous decade or so behind them, and to return to what ''Nihonga'' had been in the pre-war. Kawabata Ryûshi made a number of trips within Japan, including retracing the famous journey recounted in [[Matsuo Basho|Matsuo Bashô's]] collection of [[haiku]] "''[[Oku no Hosomichi|Ôku no Hosomichi]]''", and painting scenes of historical or cultural importance, such as the Yômeimon of [[Nikko Toshogu|Nikkô Tôshôgû]] and [[Ama-no-Hashidate]], recalling pre-war works such as Kobayashi Kokei's 1916 painting of the Byôdôin, entitled "Amida-dô", mentioned above.

The 1960s thus saw a profound shift in ''Nihonga'', as abstraction began to have a much more powerful impact upon the more prominent ''Nihonga'' artists. Though many local artists and hobbyists continued to produce ink paintings as they always had, many of those more actively engaged in the national and international art world, such as Dômoto Inshô, now began to produce abstract works largely indistinguishable from those created by their Western counterparts (and Japanese counterparts working in Western media) except in media.

The 1960s thus saw a profound shift in ''Nihonga'', as abstraction began to have a much more powerful impact upon the more prominent ''Nihonga'' artists. Though many local artists and hobbyists continued to produce ink paintings as they always had, many of those more actively engaged in the national and international art world, such as Dômoto Inshô, now began to produce abstract works largely indistinguishable from those created by their Western counterparts (and Japanese counterparts working in Western media) except in media.

Though many in Japan continue to produce works in traditional media, and/or on traditional themes, calling themselves ''Nihonga'' artists, and being shown in shows which bill them and their work as such, very few if any are prominent in the national or international art world. While art associations continue to rent out spaces in Kyoto and elsewhere to show their works, curated exhibitions of ''Nihonga'' at major art museums in Japan and overseas focus primarily on pre-war artworks.

Though many in Japan continue to produce works in traditional media, and/or on traditional themes, calling themselves ''Nihonga'' artists, and being shown in shows which bill them and their work as such, very few if any are prominent in the national or international art world. Many are still commissioned by major Buddhist temples or other traditional organizations to produce decorative works for their institutions. But, while art associations continue to rent out spaces in Kyoto and elsewhere to show their works, curated exhibitions of ''Nihonga'' at major art museums in Japan and overseas focus primarily on pre-war artworks.

==Neo-Nihonga==

==Neo-Nihonga==

The 1990s to 2000s has seen the rise of what might be termed "neo-Nihonga," as many artists have turned once again to seeking to depict distinctively Japanese themes and subjects in their work, emphasizing or exploring Japanese identity and celebrating Japanese artistic traditions. Though these artists, including Yamaguchi Akira, Tenmyouya Hisashi, and Yamamoto Tarô, tend to work more in oils, digital editing, and other non-traditional media, their works heavily incorporate traditional styles, and references to specific famous historical works, combining these with references to contemporary commercial culture by way of social commentary, or simply fun juxtapositions and explorations of contemporary Japanese identity.

The 1990s to 2000s has seen the rise of what might be termed "neo-Nihonga," as many artists have turned once again to seeking to depict distinctively Japanese themes and subjects in their work, emphasizing or exploring Japanese identity and celebrating Japanese artistic traditions. Though these artists, including Yamaguchi Akira, Tenmyouya Hisashi, and Yamamoto Tarô, tend to work more in oils, digital editing, and other non-traditional media, their works heavily incorporate traditional styles, and references to specific famous historical works, combining these with references to contemporary commercial culture by way of social commentary, or simply fun juxtapositions and explorations of contemporary Japanese identity.

==References==

==References==

*Conant, Ellen (ed.). ''Nihonga: Transcending the Past''. The Saint Louis Art Museum, 1995.

*Ellen Conant (ed.). ''Nihonga: Transcending the Past''. The Saint Louis Art Museum, 1995.

*Mason, Penelope. ''History of Japanese Art''. Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. pp363-370.

*Penelope Mason. ''History of Japanese Art''. Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. pp363-370.

*Morioka, Michiyo and Paul Berry. ''Modern Masters of Kyoto''. Seattle Art Museum, 2000.

*Morioka Michiyo and Paul Berry. ''Modern Masters of Kyoto''. Seattle Art Museum, 2000.

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[[Category:Art and Architecture]]

[[Category:Art and Architecture]]

[[Category:Meiji Period]]

[[Category:Meiji Period]]