Changes

New sets of tallies were issued by some Ming Emperors, but not all, in conjunction with their ascension to the throne; over the course of the period of Ming-Ashikaga relations, this occurred six times, at the ascensions of the [[Yongle Emperor|Yongle]], [[Xuande Emperor|Xuande]], [[Jingtai Emperor|Jingtai]], [[Chenghua Emperor|Chenghua]], [[Hongzhi Emperor|Hongzhi]] and [[Zhengde Emperor]]s. Each time, one hundred tallies were prepared, and numbered sequentially. Japanese ships arriving in China were expected to carry a number of the forms, arranged sequentially beginning with one; each of these borne by the Japanese side would bear the character ''hon'' 本, of ''Nihon'' 日本. Upon arriving at [[Zhejiang]] and [[Beijing]], the tallies would be checked against the port officials' registers, and the cargoes and inventory lists checked as well, along with various other figures such as the number of ships and number of crew members, to make sure these were in line with proper tributary protocol.

New sets of tallies were issued by some Ming Emperors, but not all, in conjunction with their ascension to the throne; over the course of the period of Ming-Ashikaga relations, this occurred six times, at the ascensions of the [[Yongle Emperor|Yongle]], [[Xuande Emperor|Xuande]], [[Jingtai Emperor|Jingtai]], [[Chenghua Emperor|Chenghua]], [[Hongzhi Emperor|Hongzhi]] and [[Zhengde Emperor]]s. Each time, one hundred tallies were prepared, and numbered sequentially. Japanese ships arriving in China were expected to carry a number of the forms, arranged sequentially beginning with one; each of these borne by the Japanese side would bear the character ''hon'' 本, of ''Nihon'' 日本. Upon arriving at [[Zhejiang]] and [[Beijing]], the tallies would be checked against the port officials' registers, and the cargoes and inventory lists checked as well, along with various other figures such as the number of ships and number of crew members, to make sure these were in line with proper tributary protocol.

Tally trade relations between the Ming Dynasty and Ashikaga shogunate began in the wake of the end of the [[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-chô period]], when the shogunate (with the backing of just one, recognized, Imperial Court) became more able to claim authority as the sole legitimate power in Japan. Shogun [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] had previously tried to establish relations with the Ming, sending envoys in [[1374]] and [[1380]], but was rebuffed both times. Following the fall of the [[Southern Court]] in [[1392]], however, Yoshimitsu sent a new mission in [[1401]], and was able to secure a positive response. For the next several years, Japanese and Ming envoys traveled together back and forth between the two countries roughly once a year. Yoshimitsu received formal [[investiture]] as "King of Japan" in [[1402]] or [[1403]].

Tally trade relations between the Ming Dynasty and Ashikaga shogunate began in the wake of the end of the [[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-chô period]], when the shogunate (with the backing of just one, recognized, Imperial Court) became more able to claim authority as the sole legitimate power in Japan. Shogun [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] had previously tried to establish relations with the Ming, sending envoys in [[1374]] and [[1380]], but was rebuffed both times. Following the fall of the [[Southern Court]] in [[1392]], however, Yoshimitsu sent a new mission in [[1401]], and was able to secure a positive response. For the next several years, Japanese and Ming envoys traveled together back and forth between the two countries roughly once a year. Yoshimitsu received formal [[investiture]] as "King of Japan" in [[1403]].

The first tally ship was sent from Japan in [[1404]], and the last in [[1547]]. Over the course of that period, a total of 84 Japanese trading vessels visited China on formal tally trade journeys, spread out across seventeen individual trips.<ref>These took place in 1404, 1405, 1406-1407, 1408 (two missions that year), 1410, 1432-1433, 1434-1435, 1451-1453, 1465-1468, 1476-1477, 1483-1484, 1493-1495, 1506-1511, 1523, 1520-1523, 1538-1540, and 1547-1549. Where a span of years are given, the mission departs in the former year, and arrives in China in the latter year.</ref>

The first tally ship was sent from Japan in [[1404]], and the last in [[1547]]. Over the course of that period, a total of 84 Japanese trading vessels visited China on formal tally trade journeys, spread out across seventeen individual trips.<ref>These took place in 1404, 1405, 1406-1407, 1408 (two missions that year), 1410, 1432-1433, 1434-1435, 1451-1453, 1465-1468, 1476-1477, 1483-1484, 1493-1495, 1506-1511, 1523, 1520-1523, 1538-1540, and 1547-1549. Where a span of years are given, the mission departs in the former year, and arrives in China in the latter year.</ref>

Things only went smoothly for a very few years, however, before, following Yoshimitsu's death in [[1408]], his son and successor [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]] discontinued formal relations with the Ming. The [[Yongle Emperor]] sent envoys to Yoshimochi on two occasions - in [[1417]] and [[1419]] - seeking the restoration of relations, but was rebuffed both times. It was not until after Yoshimochi's death in [[1428]], under his younger brother [[Ashikaga Yoshinori]], that the tally trade resumed, with the first mission since [[1410]] being dispatched in [[1432]]. Missions had previously been sponsored entirely by the shogunate, but missions now began to be co-sponsored by considerable numbers of prominent temples, shrines, and daimyo. After this 1432 mission, and another dispatched in [[1434]], no missions traveled to China for over 15 years; when the next one appeared, in [[1451]], it was so large - nine ships - that it sparked the Ming Court to impose restrictions on the size and frequency of missions. Japanese vessels were now officially limited to coming to China only once every ten years, with no more than three ships, and no more than 300 men per ship. In practice, 150-200 of the men on each ship were merchants, with the crew comprising the remainder.

Things only went smoothly for a very few years, however, before, following Yoshimitsu's death in [[1408]], his son and successor [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]] discontinued formal relations with the Ming. The [[Yongle Emperor]] sent envoys to Yoshimochi on two occasions - in [[1417]] and [[1419]] - seeking the restoration of relations, but was rebuffed both times. It was not until after Yoshimochi's death in [[1428]], under his younger brother [[Ashikaga Yoshinori]], that the tally trade resumed, with the first mission since [[1410]] being dispatched in [[1432]]. Missions had previously been sponsored entirely by the shogunate, but missions now began to be co-sponsored by considerable numbers of prominent temples, shrines, and daimyo. After this 1432 mission, and another dispatched in [[1434]], no missions traveled to China for over 15 years; when the next one appeared, in [[1451]], it was so large - nine ships - that it sparked the Ming Court to impose restrictions on the size and frequency of missions. Japanese vessels were now officially limited to coming to China only once every ten years, with no more than three ships, and no more than 300 men per ship. In practice, 150-200 of the men on each ship were merchants, with the crew comprising the remainder.

Originally, tally trade ships typically departed Japan from [[Hyogo no tsu|Hyôgo-no-tsu]] (modern-day [[Kobe]]). Rather than building new ships specifically for the tally trade, the shogunate commissioned ships from [[Inland Sea]] merchants, and hired captains, helmsmen, and sailors from among that same group. A typical pattern was for the ships to depart from Hyôgo, pick up various goods at various Inland Sea ports, make their way to [[Hakata]] where they would formally assemble as a fleet, and then reassemble at [[Hirado]] or the [[Goto Islands|Gotô Islands]] to wait for favorable winds to make the sea crossing. The crossing was typically made in spring, though sometimes autumn winds were employed; the ships made landfall near [[Ningbo]]. While the crews were set up with lodging at the Zhejiang ''shibosi'' (port office), their ships, cargoes, and documents were inspected. In the early portion of this period of tally trade, the chief envoy would then journey to Beijing, along with much of the gifts/goods, and samples of some of the larger bulk goods, such as sappanwood, copper, and pepper, which would then be sent along in their full amounts shortly afterwards. In the 15th century, those who traveled onward to Beijing were generally limited to around 300-350 people, but in the early 16th century, this was further reduced, and only about 50 people were permitted to enter the capital. In later times, these goods would not be sent to Beijing, but instead the more nearby [[Nanjing]]. The formal tribute goods presented to the Ming Court from the Japanese included horses, sulfur, swords and other arms, and various craft products such as screens, fans, inkstones, and lacquerware; official and private trade goods sent from Japan, meanwhile, included the above-mentioned sappanwood, copper, and pepper, as well as swords, sulfur, and craft products such as inkstones, fans, screens, and lacquerwares. The volume of these goods could be quite extensive; in [[1453]], for example, the mission brought 150,000 catties (''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'') of copper, and 364,000 of sulfur, as trade goods (not counting tribute goods).

Originally, tally trade ships typically departed Japan from [[Hyogo no tsu|Hyôgo-no-tsu]] (modern-day [[Kobe]]). Rather than building new ships specifically for the tally trade, the shogunate commissioned ships from [[Inland Sea]] merchants or sea-lords (a group which often overlapped considerably with "[[wako|pirates]]"), and hired captains, helmsmen, sailors, and muscle (protection) from among that same group.<ref>Peter Shapinsky, “Envoys and Escorts: Representation and Performance among Koxinga’s Japanese Pirate Ancestors,” in ''Sea Rovers, Silver, and Samurai'', ed. by Tonio Andrade and Xing Hang. UH Press (2016), 52.</ref> A typical pattern was for the ships to depart from Hyôgo, pick up various goods at various Inland Sea ports, make their way to [[Hakata]] where they would formally assemble as a fleet, and then reassemble at [[Hirado]] or the [[Goto Islands|Gotô Islands]] to wait for favorable winds to make the sea crossing. The crossing was typically made in spring, though sometimes autumn winds were employed; the ships made landfall near [[Ningbo]]. While the crews were set up with lodging at the Zhejiang ''shibosi'' (port office), their ships, cargoes, and documents were inspected. In the early portion of this period of tally trade, the chief envoy would then journey to Beijing, along with much of the gifts/goods, and samples of some of the larger bulk goods, such as sappanwood, copper, and pepper, which would then be sent along in their full amounts shortly afterwards. In the 15th century, those who traveled onward to Beijing were generally limited to around 300-350 people, but in the early 16th century, this was further reduced, and only about 50 people were permitted to enter the capital. In later times, these goods would not be sent to Beijing, but instead the more nearby [[Nanjing]]. The formal tribute goods presented to the Ming Court from the Japanese included horses, [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan]] sulfur,<ref>Asato Susumu 安里進, Dana Masayuki 田名真之, et al. (eds.), Okinawa ken no rekishi 沖縄県の歴史, Tokyo: Yamakawa shuppan (2010), 117.</ref> swords and other arms, and various craft products such as screens, fans, inkstones, and lacquerware; official and private trade goods sent from Japan, meanwhile, included the above-mentioned sappanwood, copper, and pepper, as well as swords, sulfur, and craft products such as inkstones, fans, screens, and lacquerwares. The volume of these goods could be quite extensive; in [[1453]], for example, the mission brought 150,000 catties (''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'') of copper, and 364,000 of sulfur, as trade goods (not counting tribute goods).

In return for these tribute offerings, Japan received from the Ming Court silver, silks, large amounts of [[currency|copper coins]], and various luxury goods such as porcelains, brocades, and bronzes. Meanwhile, Japanese members of the missions, in their private trade activities, obtained goods such as lacquerware, copper goods, sugar, ceramic wares, books, scrolls of calligraphy, silks, hemp, cotton, and medicines.

In return for these tribute offerings, Japan received from the Ming Court silver, silks, large amounts of [[currency|copper coins]], and various luxury goods such as porcelains, brocades, and bronzes. Meanwhile, Japanese members of the missions, in their private trade activities, obtained goods such as lacquerware, copper goods, sugar, ceramic wares, books, scrolls of calligraphy, silks, hemp, cotton, and medicines.