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''"Prosperity to the Lew Chewans, and may they and the Americans always be friends." - Commodore Perry, at Shuri, June 6, 1853.''

''"Prosperity to the Lew Chewans, and may they and the Americans always be friends." - Commodore Perry, at Shuri, June 6, 1853.''

Perry and his fleet of four ships (the steamships ''[[USS Susquehanna|Susquehanna]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'' and ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'')<ref>Gallery labels, Edo-Tokyo Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/50223289193/sizes/3k/]</ref> departed Norfolk, Virginia, on [[1852]]/10/13 (Nov 24). Before arriving in Japan proper in July of 1853, they first called at [[Naha]], the chief port of the Ryûkyû Kingdom, on May 26 (4/19), departing Ryûkyû more than a month later, on 5/26.

Perry and his fleet of four ships (the steamships ''[[USS Susquehanna|Susquehanna]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'' and ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'')<ref name=edotokyo>Gallery labels, Edo-Tokyo Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/50223289193/sizes/3k/]</ref> departed Norfolk, Virginia, on [[1852]]/10/13 (Nov 24). Before arriving in Japan proper in July of 1853, they first called at [[Naha]], the chief port of the Ryûkyû Kingdom, on May 26 (4/19), departing Ryûkyû more than a month later, on 5/26.

Perry was met aboard ship by the Ryukyuan royal regent, ''[[Sessei]]'' [[Ozato Chokyo|Ôzato Chôkyô]], who attempted, unsuccessfully, to convince the Commodore to give up his intentions of entering [[Shuri castle]]. [[Makishi Chochu|Makishi Chôchû]], a high-ranking official in the royal government sent to serve as interpreter, further tried to refuse Perry and his men permission even to set foot on the island, but they did so anyway, over the protests of Makishi and the other Ryukyuan authorities. Makishi would continue to serve as interpreter and in a lead role otherwise throughout Perry's visits to Ryûkyû.<ref>Kerr, George, ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing (2000), 312.</ref> [[Bernard Bettelheim]], a British missionary who had already been living on the island for several years, also imposed himself upon Perry as interpreter. A few days later, Perry's men took over a schoolhouse in [[Tomari]], claiming it as their temporary residence on the island, while Perry himself led an exploration of some of the most nearby of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

Perry was met aboard ship by the Ryukyuan royal regent, ''[[Sessei]]'' [[Ozato Chokyo|Ôzato Chôkyô]], who attempted, unsuccessfully, to convince the Commodore to give up his intentions of entering [[Shuri castle]]. [[Makishi Chochu|Makishi Chôchû]], a high-ranking official in the royal government sent to serve as interpreter, further tried to refuse Perry and his men permission even to set foot on the island, but they did so anyway, over the protests of Makishi and the other Ryukyuan authorities. Makishi would continue to serve as interpreter and in a lead role otherwise throughout Perry's visits to Ryûkyû.<ref>Kerr, George, ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing (2000), 312.</ref> [[Bernard Bettelheim]], a British missionary who had already been living on the island for several years, also imposed himself upon Perry as interpreter. A few days later, Perry's men took over a schoolhouse in [[Tomari]], claiming it as their temporary residence on the island, while Perry himself led an exploration of some of the most nearby of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

He later claimed a portion of the [[Gokoku-ji (Okinawa)|Gokoku-ji]] complex where Bettelheim was living as pasture for the fleet's cattle, and then spent the remainder of June exploring the [[Ogasawara Islands]], which he claimed for the United States before returning to Okinawa on June 30 (5/24) and departing Okinawa in earnest two days later.

He later claimed a portion of the [[Gokoku-ji (Okinawa)|Gokoku-ji]] complex where Bettelheim was living as pasture for the fleet's cattle, and then spent the remainder of June exploring the [[Ogasawara Islands]], which he claimed for the United States before returning to Okinawa on June 30 (5/24) and departing Okinawa in earnest two days later.

He landed at [[Uraga]] near [[Edo]] for the first time on 6/3, shocking Japanese fishermen and the like who were the first to witness the smoke-belching "black ships" steaming into the bay. The shogunate took steps to mobilize local police, and warned the people of the possibility of war, sending much of the townspeople of Edo into a panic. The prices of rice and other commodities skyrocketed as people stocked up. Many fled the city in a hurry, while armorers, smiths, and the like, among others, began pumping out additional product to help arm the warrior class.<ref>William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Representations of the Opening of Japan," ''Ajia bunka kenkyû'' 17 (1989), 72.</ref>

He landed at [[Uraga]] near [[Edo]] for the first time on 6/3 (July 8), shocking Japanese fishermen and the like who were the first to witness the smoke-belching "black ships" steaming into the bay. The shogunate took steps to mobilize local police, and warned the people of the possibility of war, sending much of the townspeople of Edo into a panic. The prices of rice and other commodities skyrocketed as people stocked up. Many fled the city in a hurry, while armorers, smiths, and the like, among others, began pumping out additional product to help arm the warrior class.<ref>William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Representations of the Opening of Japan," ''Ajia bunka kenkyû'' 17 (1989), 72.</ref>

Following his arrival, Perry soon afterwards met with Tokugawa officials, to whom he presented his formal credentials and formal communications from Pres. Millard Fillmore, and offered a number of gifts. These gifts, displays of Western/American technological superiority, included a 1/4-size [[railroads|steam locomotive]] with 370 yards of track, and [[telegraph]] equipment with three miles of lines.<ref>Martin Dusinberre, ''Hard Times in the Hometown: A History of Community Survival in Modern Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (2012), 34.</ref> A shogunate official was given a ride on this model train, which moved along the tracks at 18 miles per hour, and "was reported to be delighted at the ride."<ref>Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan'', Oxford University Press (2013), 50.</ref> While in mainland Japan, Perry's interpreters included [[Moriyama Einosuke]], who had learned English from [[Ranald MacDonald]], and [[John Manjiro]]. These documents, incidentally, used the term "emperor" to refer to the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[shogun]]; it was only at some point after this time that it became standard to refer to the ''tennô'' as the "[[Emperor]]" in English.<ref>Ben-Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Synapse (2000), 69-71.</ref> After delivering these letters, he departed Japan on 6/9, claiming he would return "in due course" to receive the emperor's reply.

Following his arrival, Perry soon afterwards met with Tokugawa officials of the [[Uraga bugyo|Uraga bugyôsho]], to whom he presented his formal credentials and formal communications from Pres. Millard Fillmore, and offered a number of gifts. These gifts, displays of Western/American technological superiority, included a 1/4-size [[railroads|steam locomotive]] with 370 yards of track, and [[telegraph]] equipment with three miles of lines.<ref>Martin Dusinberre, ''Hard Times in the Hometown: A History of Community Survival in Modern Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (2012), 34.</ref> A shogunate official was given a ride on this model train, which moved along the tracks at 18 miles per hour, and "was reported to be delighted at the ride."<ref>Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan'', Oxford University Press (2013), 50.</ref> While in mainland Japan, Perry's interpreters included [[Moriyama Einosuke]], who had learned English from [[Ranald MacDonald]], and [[John Manjiro]]. These documents, incidentally, used the term "emperor" to refer to the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[shogun]]; it was only at some point after this time that it became standard to refer to the ''tennô'' as the "[[Emperor]]" in English.<ref>Ben-Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Synapse (2000), 69-71.</ref>  

 

 

On 6/9 (July 14), Perry and his men met with the Uraga bugyô at a reception hall at [[Kurihama]] and formally delivered the letter. He then asked about entering Edo Bay to investigate navigational paths. Perry regathered his fleet, including the survey boats previously sent to Edo Bay, and sailed to the waters off [[Kawasaki]] on 6/10 (July 15), and then to [[Sarushima]] the following day, performing surveys there before departing entirely and claiming he would return "in due course" to receive the emperor's reply.<ref name=edotokyo/>

Perry then returned to Okinawa, arriving at Naha on 6/20 (July 25), and requesting to bury Hugh Ellis, a crewman of the [[USS Mississippi|USS ''Mississippi'']] who had died the previous day. Ellis was buried at the [[Tomari International Cemetery]] in Naha. Perry also requested to establish a coaling station on the island for American ships and was initially refused, but the Ryukyuans capitulated once Perry threatened to seize Shuri castle by force. The station which was built had a capacity for 500 tons of coal, but was emptied of coal once Perry found success in establishing relations with the shogunate; he expressed hopes at that time, however, that the building might still be maintained for American use.<ref>Hellyer, 163-164.</ref> Perry then departed Okinawa on 6/27 (August 1), and spent the next several months in Hong Kong, before returning to Okinawa in December, spending 11/15 (Dec 15) until 12/30 (Jan 28, 1854) exploring the various Ryûkyû Islands.

Perry then returned to Okinawa, arriving at Naha on 6/20 (July 25), and requesting to bury Hugh Ellis, a crewman of the [[USS Mississippi|USS ''Mississippi'']] who had died the previous day. Ellis was buried at the [[Tomari International Cemetery]] in Naha. Perry also requested to establish a coaling station on the island for American ships and was initially refused, but the Ryukyuans capitulated once Perry threatened to seize Shuri castle by force. The station which was built had a capacity for 500 tons of coal, but was emptied of coal once Perry found success in establishing relations with the shogunate; he expressed hopes at that time, however, that the building might still be maintained for American use.<ref>Hellyer, 163-164.</ref> Perry then departed Okinawa on 6/27 (August 1), and spent the next several months in Hong Kong, before returning to Okinawa in December, spending 11/15 (Dec 15) until 12/30 (Jan 28, 1854) exploring the various Ryûkyû Islands.

==1854==

==1854==

[[File:Perry-tomari.JPG|right|thumb|320px|Monument commemorating Commodore Perry's landing at [[Tomari]] in [[1853]].]]

[[File:Perry-tomari.JPG|right|thumb|320px|Monument commemorating Commodore Perry's landing at [[Tomari]] in [[1853]].]]

Perry returned to Naha on 12/22 (Jan 20, 1854), this time with a fleet of ten ships, including his flagship the [[USS Susquehanna|USS ''Susquehanna'']], as well as the steamships ''[[USS Powhatan|Powhatan]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'', ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'', ''[[USS Macedonian|Macedonian]]'', ''[[USS Lexington|Lexington]]'', ''[[USS Vandalia|Vandalia]]'', ''[[USS Southampton|Southampton]]'', and ''[[USS Supply|Supply]]''.<ref name=edotokyo> He stayed in Naha for only four days, during which time he forced his way into Shuri castle again, but again was refused audience with the king.

Perry returned to Naha on 12/22 (Jan 20, 1854), this time with a fleet of ten ships, including his flagship the [[USS Susquehanna|USS ''Susquehanna'']], as well as the steamships ''[[USS Powhatan|Powhatan]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'', ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'', ''[[USS Macedonian|Macedonian]]'', ''[[USS Lexington|Lexington]]'', ''[[USS Vandalia|Vandalia]]'', ''[[USS Southampton|Southampton]]'', and ''[[USS Supply|Supply]]''.<ref name=edotokyo/> He stayed in Naha for only four days, during which time he forced his way into Shuri castle again, but again was refused audience with the king.

 

He then arrived at Edo Bay again in mainland Japan on 1/14 (Feb 11) with a fleet of seven ships.<ref>The ''Susquehanna'', ''Powhatan'', ''Mississippi'', ''Macedonian'', ''Vandalia'', ''Southampton'', and ''Lexington''. The ''Saratoga'' and ''Supply'' arrived later, sailing from [[Shanghai]] to join the fleet at Edo Bay on 2/6 and 2/21 respectively. ''Ishin Shiryô Kôyô'' 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 532, 548, 558.</ref> The [[Convention of Kanagawa]] was signed on 3/3 (March 31), opening the ports of [[Hakodate]] and [[Shimoda]] to American trading ships, obligating the Japanese government to provide provisions and good treatment otherwise for American or European castaways throughout Japan, and arranging for the establishment of formal relations in the Western/modern style, with a permanent American consulate to be established shortly afterwards. Perry also asked the shogunate about opening Ryukyuan ports for trade, but was rebuffed, with the shogunate telling the commodore that Ryûkyû was "a very distant country, and the opening of its harbor cannot be discussed by us."<ref name=hellyer163>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 163.</ref>

Perry and his men anchored at Koshiba on 1/16 (Feb 13) and then met with Uraga bugyôsho officials and discussed where the shogunate's formal response to the president's letter would be presented to the commodore. Adams came ashore at Uraga on 1/25 (Feb 22) and met with [[Hayashi Fukusai]] and others at a temporary reception hall.<ref name=edotokyo/>

 

Perry and others then came ashore at [[Yokohama]] on 2/10 (March 8) and had their first formal meeting with shogunate officials. On 2/15, Perry gifted the shogunate a number of items including [[telegraph]] equipment, mechanical models, and small boat cannon. The two sides had their second formal meeting on 2/19 (Mar 17) and their third formal meeting the following day, during which shogunate officials presented Perry and his men with a number of lacquerware items and other craft pieces.<ref name=edotokyo/>

 

Perry banqueted a number of Tokugawa officials aboard the ''Powhatan'' on 2/29 (March 27), and they held their 4th official meeting the following day.<ref name=edotokyo/>

 

The [[Convention of Kanagawa]] was signed on 3/3 (March 31), opening the ports of [[Hakodate]] and [[Shimoda]] to American trading ships, obligating the Japanese government to provide provisions and good treatment otherwise for American or European castaways throughout Japan, and arranging for the establishment of formal relations in the Western/modern style, with a permanent American consulate to be established shortly afterwards. Perry also asked the shogunate about opening Ryukyuan ports for trade, but was rebuffed, with the shogunate telling the commodore that Ryûkyû was "a very distant country, and the opening of its harbor cannot be discussed by us."<ref name=hellyer163>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 163.</ref>

In the meantime, in response to the recent arrivals of both Perry and a number of other Western ships, the shogunate ordered all bells in the country to be melted down and refashioned into cannon and rifles - with the exception of bells at head temples (''honzan''), those used for timekeeping, and those of great age and fame.  

In the meantime, in response to the recent arrivals of both Perry and a number of other Western ships, the shogunate ordered all bells in the country to be melted down and refashioned into cannon and rifles - with the exception of bells at head temples (''honzan''), those used for timekeeping, and those of great age and fame.  

Perry sent the ''Vandalia'', ''Southampton'', and ''Macedonian'' to [[Hakodate]] in the 4th month of 1854, where they would spend 15 days surveying the harbor. Perry arrived at Hakodate himself on 4/21 aboard the ''Powhatan'', arriving alongside the ''Mississippi'', to see the site for himself.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 584, 589.</ref> He departed Hakodate on 5/8 and returned with all five ships to Shimoda.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 599.</ref>

 

Perry sent the ''Vandalia'', ''Southampton'', and ''Macedonian'' to [[Hakodate]] on 4/17 (May 13); after arriving on 4/21 (May 17), the ships spent 15 days surveying the harbor and exploring the town.<ref name=edotokyo/> Perry arrived at Hakodate himself on 4/21 aboard the ''Powhatan'', arriving alongside the ''Mississippi'', to see the site for himself.<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 584, 589.</ref> He departed Hakodate on 5/8 (June 3) and returned with all five ships to Shimoda on 5/12 (June 7).<ref>Ishin Shiryô Kôyô 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 599.</ref><ref name=edotokyo/> An addendum to the earlier convention was signed at Shimoda on 5/23 (June 18).<ref name=edotokyo/>

Perry returned to Naha for the final time on 6/7 (July 1), to find that in the intervening time, there had been several incidents between the local residents and American crewmen he had left behind. In the worst of these incidents, a crewman named [[Board Incident|William Board]] either raped a young Okinawan woman, or assaulted an old woman (accounts differ), and was then killed by an angry mob of local residents. He was buried in the Tomari International Cemetery alongside three of his crewmates who also died at various times during that year. A number of members of Perry's crew who died in mainland Japan are buried at [[Gyokusen-ji]], in [[Shimoda]].

Perry then departed Shimoda on 6/2 (June 26)<ref name=edotokyo/> and returned to Naha for the final time, arriving there on 6/7 (July 1) to find that in the intervening time, there had been several incidents between the local residents and American crewmen he had left behind. In the worst of these incidents, a crewman named [[Board Incident|William Board]] either raped a young Okinawan woman, or assaulted an old woman (accounts differ), and was then killed by an angry mob of local residents. He was buried in the Tomari International Cemetery alongside three of his crewmates who also died at various times during that year. A number of members of Perry's crew who died in mainland Japan are buried at [[Gyokusen-ji]], in Shimoda.

This grievous incident aside, the [[Treaty of Amity (Ryukyu-US)|Treaty of Amity between the United States and the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] was signed on 6/17 (July 11). In the Treaty, Ryûkyû agreed to provide wood and water to American ships calling at any Ryukyuan port, to allow Americans to move freely within Ryûkyû without being harassed or followed by government officials, to allow private trade to take place freely between Americans and Ryukyuans, and to lend aid to American ships and castaways.<ref>This treaty is also known as the Compact Between the United States and the Kingdom of Lew Chew. Hellyer, 164-165.</ref> Perry departed Ryûkyû for the final time on 6/23 (July 17), taking with him the missionary Bernard Bettelheim, and a number of significant "gifts" he had insisted one taking; these included a number of blocks of Okinawan limestone which he hoped to install into the Washington Monument, then under construction,<ref>The Okinawan limestone was not added at that time, but other blocks of limestone from Okinawa were later added into the structure in the late 20th century.</ref> and a temple bell from Gokoku-ji, forged in [[1465]], which Perry then installed at Annapolis. This bell was then rung whenever Navy won a game against Army in football, up until 1987, when it was returned to Okinawa and replaced at Annapolis by a replica.

This grievous incident aside, the [[Treaty of Amity (Ryukyu-US)|Treaty of Amity between the United States and the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] was signed on 6/17 (July 11). In the Treaty, Ryûkyû agreed to provide wood and water to American ships calling at any Ryukyuan port, to allow Americans to move freely within Ryûkyû without being harassed or followed by government officials, to allow private trade to take place freely between Americans and Ryukyuans, and to lend aid to American ships and castaways.<ref>This treaty is also known as the Compact Between the United States and the Kingdom of Lew Chew. Hellyer, 164-165.</ref> Perry departed Ryûkyû for the final time on 6/23 (July 17), taking with him the missionary Bernard Bettelheim, and a number of significant "gifts" he had insisted one taking; these included a number of blocks of Okinawan limestone which he hoped to install into the Washington Monument, then under construction,<ref>The Okinawan limestone was not added at that time, but other blocks of limestone from Okinawa were later added into the structure in the late 20th century.</ref> and a temple bell from Gokoku-ji, forged in [[1465]], which Perry then installed at Annapolis. This bell was then rung whenever Navy won a game against Army in football, up until 1987, when it was returned to Okinawa and replaced at Annapolis by a replica.