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Chinese investiture envoys were diplomatic missions sent by [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] China to the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Kingdom of Ryûkyû]] to perform investiture rituals, officially confirming the king of Ryûkyû in the eyes of the Chinese Imperial Court, and confirming his position as a [[tribute|tributary]] subordinate to the Chinese Emperor within the Sinocentric system of diplomatic relations.
Chinese investiture envoys were diplomatic missions sent by [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] China to the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Kingdom of Ryûkyû]] to perform investiture rituals, officially confirming the king of Ryûkyû in the eyes of the Chinese Imperial Court, and confirming his position as a [[tribute|tributary]] subordinate to the Chinese Emperor within the Sinocentric system of diplomatic relations.
==History==
[[Satto]] became, in [[1372]], the first Ryukyuan king to submit to Chinese suzerainty<ref>Kerr, George. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. (revised ed.) Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. p65.</ref>. Beginning with the investiture of Satto's successor, [[Bunei]], in [[1406]]<ref name=kerr83>Kerr. p83.</ref>, twenty-two such missions traveled to Ryûkyû in total<ref name=shimpo>"[http://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/storyid-41495-storytopic-121.html Sappôshi]." ''Okinawa konpakuto jiten'' (沖縄コンパクト事典, "Okinawa Compact Encyclopedia"). 1 March 2003. Accessed 7 November 2009.</ref>, the last in [[1866]], for the investiture of [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]]<ref name=kerr352>Kerr. p352.</ref>.
[[Satto]] became, in [[1372]], the first Ryukyuan king to submit to Chinese suzerainty<ref>Kerr, George. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. (revised ed.) Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. p65.</ref>. Beginning with the investiture of Satto's successor, [[Bunei]], in [[1406]]<ref name=kerr83>Kerr. p83.</ref>, twenty-two such missions traveled to Ryûkyû in total<ref name=shimpo>"[http://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/storyid-41495-storytopic-121.html Sappôshi]." ''Okinawa konpakuto jiten'' (沖縄コンパクト事典, "Okinawa Compact Encyclopedia"). 1 March 2003. Accessed 7 November 2009.</ref>, the last in [[1866]], for the investiture of [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]]<ref name=kerr352>Kerr. p352.</ref>.
The Ming Dynasty capital of Beijing fell to Manchu invaders in [[1644]], marking the beginning of Qing Dynasty control of China; Ming loyalists continued to hold out in southern China and Taiwan, however, for several decades. For a time, King [[Sho Ken|Shô Ken]] maintained the kingdom's allegiance to, and relations with, the Ming, in part because of pragmatic economic concerns, namely Ming willingness to resume the raw silk trade. Chinese envoy [[Xie Bizhen]]<!--謝必振--> traveled alongside Ryukyuan representatives within China, and to & from Ryûkyû, numerous times, attempting to convince the kingdom to sever its ties with the Ming loyalists, and enter into relations with the Qing Dynasty.
Shô Ken was succeeded by his younger brother, [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] following the former's death in [[1647]], and King Shô Shitsu was eventually convinced to send a delegation to Beijing. The Ryukyuan envoys, Ba Sôki<!--馬宗毅--> and Sai Soryû<!--蔡祚隆-->, were sent to congratulate the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] on his recent enthronement, to had over the king's Ming stamp and Imperial Rescript, and to request a new stamp and rescript from the Qing. It is said, however, that Shô Shitsu did not request investiture from the Qing, nor desire that a Qing embassy should come to Ryûkyû.
A Qing embassy was commissioned in to journey to Ryûkyû anyway, in [[1654]], in order to clarify Ryûkyû's position under Qing authority. The embassy, led by [[Zhang Xueli]]<!--張学礼--> and [[Wang Gai]]<!--王垓-->, traveled to Fuzhou along with Xie Bizhen, Sai Soryû, and Ba Sôki, but was unable to proceed to Ryûkyû, blocked by the naval forces of Zheng Chenggong ([[Coxinga]]), leader of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan.
The Shunzhi Emperor died in [[1661]] and was succeeded by the [[Kangxi Emperor]], who ordered Zhang and Wang to journey to Ryûkyû to perform the official investiture rituals, and to present Shô Shitsu with a new Qing Imperial rescript. The two arrived in [[Naha]] in [[1663]] along with Sai Soryû and Xie Bizhen (Ba Sôki had died in 1659), surprising Ryukyuan officials, who had not requested investiture, and who had not been informed to expect the Chinese envoys' arrival. Furthermore, [[Shuri castle]] had been destroyed by a fire in [[1660]], and so Ryûkyû was especially unprepared to formally receive these Chinese envoys. Nevertheless, the investiture went forward, and the system or tradition of Chinese investiture envoys being sent to Ryûkyû was re-established.<ref>Nishizato Kikô. "The Problem of Royal Investiture during the Ming-Qing Transition Period." [http://venus.unive.it/okinawa/en/sunti/nishizato.html Abstract]. Paper presented at 5th International Conference on Okinawan Studies, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, September 2006.</ref>
==Preparation==
==Preparation==
The Chinese envoys arrived in ships called ''ukwanshin'' (御冠船, lit. "Crown Ships") in [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]]. The mission would usually consist of two official envoy ships, separate crafts carrying the chief envoy and his deputy, as some uncertainty accompanied the journey<ref name=kerr181>Kerr. p181.</ref>; these would be accompanied by a number of merchant ships. During Japan's [[Edo period]], an agent from Satsuma known as a ''kansen bugyô'' (冠船奉行, "Investiture (Crown) Ships Magistrate") would be sent down to Ryûkyû to supervise the exchanges and interactions between Chinese and Ryukyuan officials, albeit from somewhat of a distance, given the policy of hiding Satsuma's involvement in Ryûkyû from the Chinese<ref>Matsuda, Mitsugu. ''The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872''. Gushikawa: Yui Publishing, Co., 2001. pp46-47.</ref>. A Ryukyuan office known as the ''hyôka-gata'' in Japanese (C: ''pingjia shi'') set the prices of commodities imported in this way, and oversaw the purchases of the Chinese goods.<ref>Schottenhammer. p45.</ref>
The Chinese envoys arrived in ships called ''ukwanshin'' (御冠船, lit. "Crown Ships") in [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]]. The mission would usually consist of two official envoy ships, separate crafts carrying the chief envoy and his deputy, as some uncertainty accompanied the journey<ref name=kerr181>Kerr. p181.</ref>; these would be accompanied by a number of merchant ships. During Japan's [[Edo period]], an agent from Satsuma known as a ''kansen bugyô'' (冠船奉行, "Investiture (Crown) Ships Magistrate") would be sent down to Ryûkyû to supervise the exchanges and interactions between Chinese and Ryukyuan officials, albeit from somewhat of a distance, given the policy of hiding Satsuma's involvement in Ryûkyû from the Chinese<ref>Matsuda, Mitsugu. ''The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872''. Gushikawa: Yui Publishing, Co., 2001. pp46-47.</ref>. A Ryukyuan office known as the ''hyôka-gata'' in Japanese (C: ''pingjia shi'') set the prices of commodities imported in this way, and oversaw the purchases of the Chinese goods.<ref>Schottenhammer. p45.</ref>
Arriving in Shuri, the envoys generally stayed for four to eight months<ref name=shimpo/> at a residence known as the Tenshikan, and were extensively entertained by the Ryukyuan royal court. A number of structures built for this purpose (and reconstructed/restored in the late 20th century), including the [[Ryutan|Ryûtan]] pond and the Hokuden (North Hall) of [[Shuri Castle]], can still be seen today on the castle grounds. The total Chinese entourage generally numbered between 300 and 800 people, and hosting and entertaining the Chinese envoys was an extremely expensive endeavor for the Ryukyuan court<ref name=kerr181/>, costing roughly 320,000 [[tael]]s of silver, much of which often had to be borrwed from Satsuma.<ref name=schott46>Schottenhammer. p46.</ref> The envoys were treated to seven formal banquets during their stay; in addition, they were visited by senior officials and ministers once every five days, who brought the emissaries considerable amounts of food<ref name=chen/>.
Arriving in Shuri, the envoys generally stayed for four to eight months<ref name=shimpo/> at a residence known as the Tenshikan, and were extensively entertained by the Ryukyuan royal court. A number of structures built for this purpose (and reconstructed/restored in the late 20th century), including the [[Ryutan|Ryûtan]] pond and the Hokuden (North Hall) of Shuri Castle, can still be seen today on the castle grounds. The total Chinese entourage generally numbered between 300 and 800 people, and hosting and entertaining the Chinese envoys was an extremely expensive endeavor for the Ryukyuan court<ref name=kerr181/>, costing roughly 320,000 [[tael]]s of silver, much of which often had to be borrwed from Satsuma.<ref name=schott46>Schottenhammer. p46.</ref> The envoys were treated to seven formal banquets during their stay; in addition, they were visited by senior officials and ministers once every five days, who brought the emissaries considerable amounts of food<ref name=chen/>.
A "Minister of Dance" ([[Okinawan language|O]]: ''udui bugyô'') oversaw these entertainments; ''[[kumi odori]]'', a traditional form of Ryukyuan dance-drama, was first created and performed for entertaining an investiture envoy and his fellows, in 1719<ref name=kumi>Foley, Kathy. "Kumi Odori's Historical Context and Performance Practice." in ''Ryukyu Geino: The Legacy of Kin Ryosho''. Jimpu Kai USA Kin Ryosho Ryukyu Geino Kenkyusho Hawaii Shibu, 2008. pp45-56.</ref>.
A "Minister of Dance" ([[Okinawan language|O]]: ''udui bugyô'') oversaw these entertainments; ''[[kumi odori]]'', a traditional form of Ryukyuan dance-drama, was first created and performed for entertaining an investiture envoy and his fellows, in 1719<ref name=kumi>Foley, Kathy. "Kumi Odori's Historical Context and Performance Practice." in ''Ryukyu Geino: The Legacy of Kin Ryosho''. Jimpu Kai USA Kin Ryosho Ryukyu Geino Kenkyusho Hawaii Shibu, 2008. pp45-56.</ref>.
* 1562 - [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] is invested as king.
* 1562 - [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] is invested as king.
* 1663 - [[Zhang Xueli]] leads the investiture mission.
* 1663 - [[Zhang Xueli]] and [[Wang Gai]] lead the first investiture mission sent by the Qing Court, re-establishing the tradition after the fall of the Ming Dynasty. [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] is invested as king.
* 1683 - [[Sho Tei|Shô Tei]] is invested as king. [[Wang Ji]] (1636-1699) leads the mission.
* 1683 - [[Sho Tei|Shô Tei]] is invested as king. [[Wang Ji]] (1636-1699) leads the mission.
==References==
==References==
*Schottenhammer, Angela. "The East Asian maritime world, 1400-1800: Its fabrics of power and dynamics of exchanges - China and her neighbors." in Schottenhammer (ed.) ''The East Asian maritime world, 1400-1800: Its fabrics of power and dynamics of exchanges''. Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007. pp45ff.
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[[Category:Ryukyu]]
[[Category:Ryukyu]]
[[Category:Political Institutions]]
[[Category:Political Institutions]]