Changes

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Tang Dynasty]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. Licensing exams authorized one to move on to the next level of exams, while qualifying exams allowed one to renew or maintain that "license." In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]).  

There were four levels of exams through which a candidate would have to pass in order to be eligible to proceed to the next level: one would need to pass exams in one's county (郷試, ''xiāngshì'') to move on to the provincial exams (會試, ''huìshì''), then on to the metropolitan (i.e. Beijing, i.e. nationwide/empire-wide) level (殿試, ''diànshì''), before finally being selected or rejected by the emperor. In the [[Tang Dynasty]], exams were only offered at the metropolitan & palace levels, with candidates being recommended to sit the exams by local elites. The exam system was expanded down to the provinces in the [[Song Dynasty]], and then to the local level in the [[Ming Dynasty]], with varying types of "qualifying" (科考, ''kēkǎo'') and "licensing" (歳考, ''suìkǎo'') exams being offered at that level roughly twice every three years. Licensing exams authorized one to move on to the next level of exams, while qualifying exams allowed one to renew or maintain that "license." In the Ming Dynasty, provincial exams were usually offered in the autumn (8th lunar month), with candidates taking the metropolitan exams the following spring (3rd lunar month) in either [[Nanjing]] (up until [[1421]]) or [[Beijing]] (beginning in [[1415]]).  

Those who passed the local exams were known as ''shēng-yuán'' (生員). They were considered scholars and members of the gentry, and were entitled to exception from corvée labor obligations to the state. They were not, however, generally eligible for most official posts. Those who passed the provincial exams were known as ''jǔrén'' (舉人) and were eligible both for middle-level government posts at [[Court ranks in China|Lower Ninth Rank]] and above,<ref name=huang53>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 54.</ref> and for entry into the [[National Academy]] (''guózǐjiàn''), where one would receive a stipend to support him as he studied for the metropolitan exams. Those who passed the highest level of exams were known as ''jìnshì'' (進士), qualifying them for a fuller range of high-level government positions, at Lower Seventh Rank and above.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref><ref name=huang53/> ''Jìnshì'' were ranked, however, with only the highest class of ''jìnshì'' being eligible for the highest levels of government positions, including appointment to the [[Hanlin Academy]], where they could serve as Imperial advisors and diplomats. The top three individual ''jìnshì'' candidates in each iteration of the exam held especially exclusive status, and were often eligible for particularly exclusive positions. These top three individuals were known, respectively, as the ''optimus'' (''zhuàngyuán'' 狀元), ''secundus'' (''bǎngyǎn'' 榜眼), and ''tertius'' (''tànhuā'' 探花) of that year's exam, and would retain that reputation throughout their careers. Many of the most prominent scholar-officials in history were among the top three candidates in their respective years.

Those who passed the local exams were known as ''shēng-yuán'' (生員). They were considered scholars and members of the gentry, and were entitled to exception from corvée labor obligations to the state. They were not, however, generally eligible for most official posts. Those who passed the provincial exams were known as ''jǔrén'' (舉人) and were eligible both for middle-level government posts at [[Court ranks in China|Lower Ninth Rank]] and above,<ref name=huang53>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 54.</ref> and for entry into the [[National Academy]] (''guózǐjiàn''), where one would receive a stipend to support him as he studied for the metropolitan exams. Those who passed the highest level of exams were known as ''jìnshì'' (進士), qualifying them for a fuller range of high-level government positions, at Lower Seventh Rank and above.<ref name=boxer>Joseph Esherick, ''The Origins of the Boxer Uprising'', U California Press (1987), 28-29.</ref><ref name=huang53/> ''Jìnshì'' were ranked, however, with only the highest class of ''jìnshì'' being eligible for the highest levels of government positions, including appointment to the [[Hanlin Academy]], where they could serve as Imperial advisors and diplomats. The top three individual ''jìnshì'' candidates in each iteration of the exam held especially exclusive status, and were often eligible for particularly exclusive positions. These top three individuals were known, respectively, as the ''zhuàngyuán'' (狀元), ''bǎngyǎn'' (榜眼), and ''tànhuā'' (探花) of that year's exam, and would retain that reputation throughout their careers. Many of the most prominent scholar-officials in history were among the top three candidates in their respective years.

Earning a licentiate degree, even at the county level, was for many people the result of extensive planning, encouragement, and education by one's parents and even grandparents, and in many counties it was typical for commemorative stone arches to be erected in front of the homes of degree-holders. Beyond the degree, however, one could also receive special honors or commendations from the Emperor; in these cases, the honor was extended backwards to one's parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents, retroactively bestowing honors upon them as well. For this reason, many officials often deferred promotions in favor of receiving such a commendation, which could then be shared with one's ancestors. New tombstones were often then erected, and new portraits commissioned, reflecting the newly, posthumously, elevated status.<ref>Huang, 54-55.</ref>

Earning a licentiate degree, even at the county level, was for many people the result of extensive planning, encouragement, and education by one's parents and even grandparents, and in many counties it was typical for commemorative stone arches to be erected in front of the homes of degree-holders. Beyond the degree, however, one could also receive special honors or commendations from the Emperor; in these cases, the honor was extended backwards to one's parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents, retroactively bestowing honors upon them as well. For this reason, many officials often deferred promotions in favor of receiving such a commendation, which could then be shared with one's ancestors. New tombstones were often then erected, and new portraits commissioned, reflecting the newly, posthumously, elevated status.<ref>Huang, 54-55.</ref>

The number of people who sat for the lowest level exams was always massive, and the pass rate quite small; in some periods as few as 0.1% of candidates passed the county exams and became ''shēngyuán''. Even so, ''shēngyuán'' came to represent a rather significant proportion of society by the mid-Qing, though by that time, the ''jìnshì'' rank was all but required for someone to be considered a member of the elite. To illustrate this shift in demographics, there are estimated to have been roughly one ''shēngyuán'' per 2200 people in 1500, in contrast to a figure of one ''shēngyuán'' per 300 people two hundred years later.

The number of people who sat for the lowest level exams was always massive, and the pass rate quite small; in some periods as few as 0.1% of candidates passed the county exams and became ''shēngyuán''. Even so, ''shēngyuán'' came to represent a rather significant proportion of society by the mid-Qing, though by that time, the ''jìnshì'' rank was all but required for someone to be considered a member of the elite. To illustrate this shift in demographics, there are estimated to have been roughly one ''shēngyuán'' per 2200 people in 1500, in contrast to a figure of one ''shēngyuán'' per 300 people two hundred years later.

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of Ming Dynasty China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. [[Korea]], too, in various periods, beginning under [[King Gwangjong]] (r. [[925]]-[[975]]) of the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]),<ref>"The Arts of Korea," pamphlet, Pacific Asia Museum.</ref> used a Chinese-style examination system to select its court bureaucrats.

The [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] administered a similar system of examinations, directly based upon that of Ming Dynasty China, though reportedly easier to pass, in selecting members of its own scholar-aristocracy for positions in the kingdom's bureaucracy. The exam system was adopted in Korea, too, where it became in some respects even more extensive than in China. It may have been introduced to Korea by Korean scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-won, who spent 17 years in Tang Dynasty China, and passed the exams in [[Chang'an]] in [[874]].<ref name=kang>Kang, David C. “Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia.” ''Security Studies'' 19, no. 4 (2010): 609.</ref> Some sources say the exams were not implemented in Korea until the following century, under under [[King Gwangjong]] (r. [[925]]-[[975]]) of the [[Koryo Dynasty]] ([[918]]-[[1392]]),<ref>"The Arts of Korea," pamphlet, Pacific Asia Museum.</ref>. However, in any case, the Songgyungwan Confucian Academy was founded in Korea in [[992]], and by the [[Joseon Dynasty]] ([[1392]]-[[1897]]), there were almost ten times as many Confucian academies in Korea, per capita, as in China.<ref name=kang/>

==History==

==History==

Those from merchant families were permitted to take the exams beginning in the Ming period; however, many others, including Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those from "mean" occupational backgrounds, were still prohibited. Some foreigners, including Koreans, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuans, occasionally took the exams, but a young British man<ref>The son of customs inspector Sir Robert Hart (1835-1911).</ref> was banned from doing so in the late 19th century despite his fluency in Chinese.

Those from merchant families were permitted to take the exams beginning in the Ming period; however, many others, including Daoist and Buddhist priests, and those from "mean" occupational backgrounds, were still prohibited. Some foreigners, including Koreans, Vietnamese, and Ryukyuans, occasionally took the exams, but a young British man<ref>The son of customs inspector Sir Robert Hart (1835-1911).</ref> was banned from doing so in the late 19th century despite his fluency in Chinese.

===Qing Dynasty===

===Qing Dynasty===