Changes

==Origins==

==Origins==

The kingdom was founded in [[1351]] by U Thong, also known as King Ramathibodi I, who may have been from a local Chinese diaspora merchant family. The kingdom was visited by [[Zheng He]] twice, in [[1408]] and [[1421]]. Its chief products were rice, raw cotton, rhino horn, deer hides, elephant teeth, and a variety of forest products, and some of its chief imports were Indian textiles and Chinese [[porcelain]]s.<ref name=lock240>Craig Lockard, “‘The Sea Common to All’: Maritime Frontiers, Port Cities, and Chinese Traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce, Ca. 1400–1750.” ''Journal of World History'' 21, no. 2 (2010): 239-240.</ref>

The kingdom was founded in [[1351]] by U Thong, also known as King Ramathibodi I, who may have been from a local Chinese diaspora merchant family. The kingdom was visited by [[Zheng He]] twice, in [[1408]] and [[1421]]. Its chief products were rice, raw cotton, rhino horn, deer hides, elephant teeth, and a variety of forest products, and some of its chief imports were Indian textiles and Chinese [[porcelain]]s.<ref name=lock240>Craig Lockard, “‘The Sea Common to All’: Maritime Frontiers, Port Cities, and Chinese Traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce, Ca. 1400–1750.” ''Journal of World History'' 21, no. 2 (2010): 239-240.</ref> Siamese envoys traveled to Korea on a number of occasions in the 14th century, if not earlier, and may have passed through Japan on their way there, but records on this subject prior to the 17th century are extremely sketchy.<ref name=ishiisiam>Ishii Yoneo, "Siam and Japan in Pre-Modern Times: A Note on Mutual Images," in Donald Denoon et al (eds.), ''Multicultural Japan'', Cambridge University Press (1996), 153.</ref>

Ayutthaya was a major [[tribute|tributary]] to the [[Ming Dynasty]] in the 14th-15th centuries, sending 68 tribute missions between [[1369]] and [[1439]]. These missions were more numerous, and carried a greater variety of goods, than those sent to China by any other tributary.<ref name=lock240/> Ayutthaya was one of the most distant polities - culturally, at least, insofar as Siam is an Indic culture, not a Sinic one - to maintain regular relations with the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] court. The kingdom fought off attacks by [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] Chinese armies in the 1580s-1590s, but also engaged in regular [[tribute]] trade, sending missions to China once every few years, and receiving investiture in return. In [[1575]], Ayutthaya sent envoys to Ming to request a new royal seal to replace one destroyed in fighting with the Burmese, and in [[1592]] King [[Naresuan]] offered to send his navy to help the Ming defeat [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Toyotomi Hideyoshi's]] attempts to [[Korean Invasions|conquer Korea]],<ref>David C. Kang, “Hierarchy in Asian International Relations: 1300-1900.” ''Asian Security'' 1, no. 1 (2005): 62. </ref> though the offer was formally rejected the following year.<ref>Polenghi, 14.</ref>

Ayutthaya was a major [[tribute|tributary]] to the [[Ming Dynasty]] in the 14th-15th centuries, sending 68 tribute missions between [[1369]] and [[1439]]. These missions were more numerous, and carried a greater variety of goods, than those sent to China by any other tributary.<ref name=lock240/> Ayutthaya was one of the most distant polities - culturally, at least, insofar as Siam is an Indic culture, not a Sinic one - to maintain regular relations with the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] court. The kingdom fought off attacks by [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] Chinese armies in the 1580s-1590s, but also engaged in regular [[tribute]] trade, sending missions to China once every few years, and receiving [[investiture]] in return. In [[1575]], Ayutthaya sent envoys to Ming to request a new royal seal to replace one destroyed in fighting with the Burmese, and in [[1592]] King [[Naresuan]] offered to send his navy to help the Ming defeat [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Toyotomi Hideyoshi's]] attempts to [[Korean Invasions|conquer Korea]],<ref>David C. Kang, “Hierarchy in Asian International Relations: 1300-1900.” ''Asian Security'' 1, no. 1 (2005): 62. </ref> though the offer was formally rejected the following year.<ref>Polenghi, 14.</ref>

Ayutthaya entered into trade relations with Ryûkyû in the mid-to-late 15th century, and only began trading with Japan a century later, in the 1570s. Official trade with Japan was overseen by a Siamese Department of Eastern Maritime Affairs and Crown Junks; the office was headed by a resident Chinese official, and employed Chinese language in much of its activities, Ming diplomatic protocols being standard throughout much of the region.<ref name=pol23/>  

Ayutthaya entered into trade relations with Ryûkyû in the mid-to-late 15th century, and traded local products such as [[sappanwood]] and pepper for East Asian goods such as folding fans and Japanese swords. These swords became an integral part of the Siamese king's regalia, while the Siamese products were crucial elements of Ryûkyû's tributary goods, given as gifts to Ming Dynasty China.<ref name=ishiisiam/> Ayutthaya only began trading with Japan a century later, in the 1570s. Official trade with Japan was overseen by a Siamese Department of Eastern Maritime Affairs and Crown Junks; the office was headed by a resident Chinese official, and employed Chinese language in much of its activities, Ming diplomatic protocols being standard throughout much of the region.<ref name=pol23/>  

==Early Modern Period==

==Early Modern Period==

The city grew in strength after [[1511]], when the Portuguese conquest of [[Malacca]] drove many Chinese and Southeast Asian merchants to relocate, and to operate out of Ayutthaya instead. The city was destroyed by Burmese invaders in the 1560s (as it would be again in the 1760s), but it recovered to become perhaps the largest city in Southeast Asia by 1600.<ref name=lock240/> It was located a short distance upriver from the coast along the Menam River, making it more protected from coastal raiders and pirates than many of the other major port cities in the region (such as Malacca).<ref>Polenghi, 21.</ref> It was further defended by a set of city walls, outside of which the king granted designated areas of land to each of a number of foreign communities. This served to protect the city to a certain extent from possible uprisings by these foreign merchants & settlers, but also served the simple logistical convenience of enabling foreign ships to dock at the docks associated with their community. The city was home to communities of Chinese, Malays, Chams, Persians, Indians, Arabs, and by 1600 or so, Japanese as well. The Chinese were by far the largest group, numbering around 3-4,000 by the 1680s, and were so numerous, and so well-integrated into the local society that local rulers seem to have considered them nobles & commoners, i.e. regular members of society, and not foreigners.<ref name=lock241>Lockard, 241.</ref> The Chinese were particularly prominent in the local society as merchants, shippers, and shipwrights, as well as in a variety of other positions. Roughly half the ships in port at any given time were Chinese-owned, and quite a few Japanese merchants, based in [[Osaka]] or [[Sakai]], purchased their ships (or commissioned them to be built) in Ayutthaya. Many Crown Ships, which operated on behalf of the court, king, or royal princes, were also built and captained by local Chinese. Between the 1630s and 1720s, as many as nine Siamese ships made port at Nagasaki each year. These Crown Ships were also accepted at [[Qing Dynasty]] Chinese ports as private Chinese trade ships, and not as a foreign court's official trade (in which case they would have been subject to the protocols and obligations of the tribute system). Revenues from this maritime trade accounted for roughly one-third of royal income.<ref name=lock242>Lockard, 242-243.</ref>

The city grew in strength after [[1511]], when the Portuguese conquest of [[Malacca]] drove many Chinese and Southeast Asian merchants to relocate, and to operate out of Ayutthaya instead. Ayutthaya quickly secured a treaty with the Portuguese in [[1516]], mainly to secure access to [[teppo|firearms]], and to defend against the development of European hostility against the kingdom. Dominicans, Franciscans, and [[Jesuits]] then established missions in the city in [[1566]], [[1587]], and [[1607]] respectively.<ref>Ishii, "Siam and Japan," 154.</ref>

 

The city was destroyed by Burmese invaders in the 1560s (as it would be again in the 1760s), but it recovered to become perhaps the largest city in Southeast Asia by 1600.<ref name=lock240/> It was located a short distance upriver from the coast along the Menam River, making it more protected from coastal raiders and pirates than many of the other major port cities in the region (such as Malacca).<ref>Polenghi, 21.</ref> It was further defended by a set of city walls, outside of which the king granted designated areas of land to each of a number of foreign communities. This served to protect the city to a certain extent from possible uprisings by these foreign merchants & settlers, but also served the simple logistical convenience of enabling foreign ships to dock at the docks associated with their community. The city was home to communities of Chinese, Malays, Chams, Persians, Indians, Arabs, and by 1600 or so, Japanese as well. The Chinese were by far the largest group, numbering around 3-4,000 by the 1680s, and were so numerous, and so well-integrated into the local society that local rulers seem to have considered them nobles & commoners, i.e. regular members of society, and not foreigners.<ref name=lock241>Lockard, 241.</ref> The Chinese were particularly prominent in the local society as merchants, shippers, and shipwrights, as well as in a variety of other positions. Roughly half the ships in port at any given time were Chinese-owned, and quite a few Japanese merchants, based in [[Osaka]] or [[Sakai]], purchased their ships (or commissioned them to be built) in Ayutthaya. Many Crown Ships, which operated on behalf of the court, king, or royal princes, were also built and captained by local Chinese. Between the 1630s and 1720s, as many as nine Siamese ships made port at Nagasaki each year. These Crown Ships were also accepted at [[Qing Dynasty]] Chinese ports as private Chinese trade ships, and not as a foreign court's official trade (in which case they would have been subject to the protocols and obligations of the tribute system). Revenues from this maritime trade accounted for roughly one-third of royal income.<ref name=lock242>Lockard, 242-243.</ref>

The Japantown was located on the eastern bank of the Menam, along with the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) factory, and a brief-lived British enclave (from [[1612]]-[[1625]]). Enclaves of Portuguese, Chinese, Malay, and Vietnamese sat on the opposite shore; many Japanese Christians sent their children to be educated in the Portuguese quarters. These foreign communities settled most internal matters themselves, but Siamese authorities still had jurisdiction; none of these foreign communities enjoyed [[extraterritoriality]] until the VOC attained such privileges in [[1664]].<ref name=pol23/>

The Japantown was located on the eastern bank of the Menam, along with the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) factory, and a brief-lived British enclave (from [[1612]]-[[1625]]). Enclaves of Portuguese, Chinese, Malay, and Vietnamese sat on the opposite shore; many Japanese Christians sent their children to be educated in the Portuguese quarters. These foreign communities settled most internal matters themselves, but Siamese authorities still had jurisdiction; none of these foreign communities enjoyed [[extraterritoriality]] until the VOC attained such privileges in [[1664]].<ref name=pol23/>

Ayutthaya made a habit of having foreigners as royal guards, and the Japanese were preceded by the Portuguese, with whom the kingdom signed a treaty in [[1516]]; some 120 Portuguese were hired by the king in [[1534]] to serve as members of his guard. The Portuguese were followed by the Japanese, who were then followed in turn by Chams and Malays as the dominant group within the Siamese royal guard.<ref>Polenghi, 22.</ref> More than twenty Japanese merchant houses, along with some number of independent individual sailors, were active in trading between Ayutthaya and Nagasaki each year, and the kingdom enjoyed formal relations with the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] as well, beginning in [[1606]], and received arms and other supplies from the shogunate to aid in Ayutthaya's defense against periodic [[Burma|Burmese]] attacks.<ref>Khien Theeravit. “Japanese-Siamese Relations, 1606-1629” in Chaiwat Khamchoo and E. Bruce Reynolds (eds.) ''Thai-Japanese Relations in Historical Perspective''. Bangkok: Innomedia Co. Ltd. Press (1988), 22, 26-27.</ref> Following an unofficial mission which nevertheless was received in audience by the shogun in [[1612]], Ayutthaya sent official diplomatic missions to Japan in [[1616]], [[1621]], [[1623]], [[1625]], [[1626]], and [[1629]].<ref name=gunn222/> These missions followed a similar form to that which would later become standard for [[Ryukyuan embassy to Edo|Ryukyuan]] and [[Korean embassies to Edo]]. Two Siamese envoys, accompanied by some 20 Siamese officials, and another 40 or so Japanese associates, for a total entourage of roughly 70 individuals, traveled to Kyoto or Edo, where they were lodged at a Buddhist temple. They were received by the shogun in audience three times in short succession during their brief stay, and presented him with extensive gifts and a formal letter from their king, receiving gifts and a formal response in return. Letters from the Siamese king were written in Chinese, in a standard format in line with [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] protocol, except with the notable exceptions of that they employed the invented [[Year dates|reign/era name]] "Ten'un" (heavenly cloud) rather than offend the Japanese by using the Ming reign name, and that they were written on sheets of gold, rolled up inside a hollowed-out elephant tusk, which was in turn placed in a decorative box wrapped in [[damask]] cloth.<ref>Polenghi, 41-43.</ref>

Ayutthaya made a habit of having foreigners as royal guards, and the Japanese were preceded by the Portuguese, with whom the kingdom signed a treaty in [[1516]]; some 120 Portuguese were hired by the king in [[1534]] to serve as members of his guard. The Portuguese were followed by the Japanese, who were then followed in turn by Chams and Malays as the dominant group within the Siamese royal guard.<ref>Polenghi, 22.</ref> More than twenty Japanese merchant houses, along with some number of independent individual sailors, were active in trading between Ayutthaya and Nagasaki each year, and the kingdom enjoyed formal relations with the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] as well, beginning in [[1606]], and received arms and other supplies from the shogunate to aid in Ayutthaya's defense against periodic [[Burma|Burmese]] attacks.<ref>Khien Theeravit. “Japanese-Siamese Relations, 1606-1629” in Chaiwat Khamchoo and E. Bruce Reynolds (eds.) ''Thai-Japanese Relations in Historical Perspective''. Bangkok: Innomedia Co. Ltd. Press (1988), 22, 26-27.</ref> Following an unofficial mission which nevertheless was received in audience by the shogun in [[1612]], Ayutthaya sent official diplomatic missions to Japan in [[1616]], [[1621]], [[1623]], [[1625]], [[1626]], and [[1629]].<ref name=gunn222/> These missions followed a similar form to that which would later become standard for [[Ryukyuan embassy to Edo|Ryukyuan]] and [[Korean embassies to Edo]]. Two Siamese envoys, accompanied by some 20 Siamese officials, and another 40 or so Japanese associates, for a total entourage of roughly 70 individuals, traveled to Kyoto or Edo, where they were lodged at a Buddhist temple. They were received by the shogun in audience three times in short succession during their brief stay, and presented him with extensive gifts and a formal letter from their king, receiving gifts and a formal response in return. Letters from the Siamese king were written in Chinese, in a standard format in line with [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] protocol, except with the notable exceptions of that they employed the invented [[Year dates|reign/era name]] "Ten'un" (heavenly cloud) rather than offend the Japanese by using the Ming reign name, and that they were written on sheets of gold, rolled up inside a hollowed-out elephant tusk, which was in turn placed in a decorative box wrapped in [[damask]] cloth.<ref>Polenghi, 41-43.</ref>

In 1621, for example, the mission's entourage included the interpreter Itô Kyûdayû, ''[[Nagasaki bugyo|Nagasaki bugyô]]'' [[Hasegawa Gonroku]], and [[Sakai]] merchant Kiya Jazaemon. They were lodged at [[Seigan-ji]] temple in [[Edo]], and met with the shogun in [[Edo castle]] in at least one formal audience, at which they presented a series of gifts, as well as a formal letter from King [[Songtham]], two addressed to the ''[[roju|rôjû]]'' from Siamese officials, and one from [[Yamada Nagamasa]], head of Ayutthaya's [[Nihonmachi|Japanese community]], addressed to Hasegawa.<ref>Nagazumi Yoko. "Ayutthaya and Japan: Embassies and Trade in the Seventeenth Century." in Kennon Breazeale (ed.). ''From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya's Maritime Relations with Asia''. Bangkok: The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities Textbook Project (1999), 91.</ref>

In 1621, for example, the mission's entourage included the interpreter Itô Kyûdayû, ''[[Nagasaki bugyo|Nagasaki bugyô]]'' [[Hasegawa Gonroku]], and [[Sakai]] merchant Kiya Jazaemon. They were lodged at [[Seigan-ji]] temple in [[Edo]], and met with the shogun in [[Edo castle]] in at least one formal audience, at which they presented a series of gifts, as well as a formal letter from King [[Songtham]], two addressed to the ''[[roju|rôjû]]'' from Siamese officials, and one from [[Yamada Nagamasa]], head of Ayutthaya's [[Nihonmachi|Japanese community]], addressed to Hasegawa. The logistical and ritual precedents set by this mission were employed as standard protocols for all those which came afterward.<ref>Nagazumi Yoko. "Ayutthaya and Japan: Embassies and Trade in the Seventeenth Century." in Kennon Breazeale (ed.). ''From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya's Maritime Relations with Asia''. Bangkok: The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities Textbook Project (1999), 91-92.</ref>

In [[1610]], King [[Ekathotsarot]] was succeeded by [[Songtham]]; that same year, the kingdom suppressed a Laotian invasion and an uprising by Japanese merchants, and established a royal guard consisting of Japanese. This guard eventually came to be headed by the ronin adventurer [[Yamada Nagamasa]]. Other Nagasaki merchants were similarly rewarded for their service in helping defend the kingdom from Burmese invasions. [[Kiya Kyuzaemon|Kiya Kyûzaemon]] was appointed to succeed [[Arima Sugihiro]] as head of the ''Nihonmachi'', and Tsuda Matazaemon was permitted to marry a daughter of the king.<ref name=gunn222/><ref>Polenghi, 40.</ref>

In [[1610]], King [[Ekathotsarot]] was succeeded by [[Songtham]]; that same year, the kingdom suppressed a Laotian invasion and an uprising by Japanese merchants, and established a royal guard consisting of Japanese. This guard eventually came to be headed by the ronin adventurer [[Yamada Nagamasa]]. Other Nagasaki merchants were similarly rewarded for their service in helping defend the kingdom from Burmese invasions. [[Kiya Kyuzaemon|Kiya Kyûzaemon]] was appointed to succeed [[Arima Sugihiro]] as head of the ''Nihonmachi'', and Tsuda Matazaemon was permitted to marry a daughter of the king.<ref name=gunn222/><ref>Polenghi, 40.</ref>

The Japanese community of Ayutthaya played some role in bringing King [[Narai]] to the throne in [[1657]], and official royal involvement in trade with Japan increased, even though it was not formally recognized as diplomatic court-to-court relations by the Tokugawa.<ref name=iwao28/> At least 41 Siamese ships traveled to Japan to trade between 1689-1723, and were received at Nagasaki as either "Chinese" or "Dutch" ships; some carried goods worth millions of [[silver dollar]]s.<ref>Kang, 69.</ref> Where Siamese goods entering Nagasaki previously did so chiefly on Chinese ships, royal investment now increased.<ref name=econ93/> Narai was perhaps among the most active of Southeast Asian rulers in engaging with the West. In [[1673]], he received formal diplomatic communications from both Louis XIV of France, and Pope Clement IX, and reciprocated them. Narai's relations with France led to his declaring war on the [[English East India Company]] in [[1687]]; the following year, [[French East India Company]] forces, ostensibly there to help combat the English, seized Bangkok and a number of other areas, before finally being convinced to quit their occupation and return these areas to Siamese control. Narai died that year, and was succeeded by [[Phra Phetracha]]. With Narai's death, the royal junk trade ended, and in the aftermath of the English-French conflict, all Europeans were ejected for several decades.<ref name=lock242/> Siam's volume of international trade declined somewhat as a result, and while trade with Japan remained central, trade with China began to grow, growing even more significant over the course of the 18th century.<ref>Shimada, 96.</ref> [[Rice]] remained Siam's chief export to China, while its exports to Japan shifted from a focus on deer hides and ray skins to a growing volume of trade in [[sappanwood]] and other aromatic woods.<ref name=shima102/>

The Japanese community of Ayutthaya played some role in bringing King [[Narai]] to the throne in [[1657]], and official royal involvement in trade with Japan increased, even though it was not formally recognized as diplomatic court-to-court relations by the Tokugawa.<ref name=iwao28/> At least 41 Siamese ships traveled to Japan to trade between 1689-1723, and were received at Nagasaki as either "Chinese" or "Dutch" ships; some carried goods worth millions of [[silver dollar]]s.<ref>Kang, 69.</ref> Where Siamese goods entering Nagasaki previously did so chiefly on Chinese ships, royal investment now increased.<ref name=econ93/> Narai was perhaps among the most active of Southeast Asian rulers in engaging with the West. In [[1673]], he received formal diplomatic communications from both Louis XIV of France, and Pope Clement IX, and reciprocated them. Narai's relations with France led to his declaring war on the [[English East India Company]] in [[1687]]; the following year, [[French East India Company]] forces, ostensibly there to help combat the English, seized Bangkok and a number of other areas, before finally being convinced to quit their occupation and return these areas to Siamese control. Narai died that year, and was succeeded by [[Phra Phetracha]]. With Narai's death, the royal junk trade ended, and in the aftermath of the English-French conflict, all Europeans were ejected for several decades.<ref name=lock242/> Siam's volume of international trade declined somewhat as a result, and while trade with Japan remained central, trade with China began to grow, growing even more significant over the course of the 18th century.<ref>Shimada, 96.</ref> [[Rice]] remained Siam's chief export to China, while its exports to Japan shifted from a focus on deer hides and ray skins to a growing volume of trade in [[sappanwood]] and other aromatic woods.<ref name=shima102/>

The Dutch, meanwhile, made extensive use of Ayutthaya. Ships traveling between [[Batavia]] and Nagasaki very often made an intermediate stop at Ayutthaya, where they purchased Siamese goods to sell in Japan. The Dutch made use of a triangle trade formation, purchasing textiles in India with Japanese [[silver]], selling the textiles in Ayutthaya and purchasing deer hides, ray skins, sappanwood, etc., and then selling the Siamese goods in Nagasaki for silver.<ref>Shimada, 94.</ref> This pattern lasted until [[1715]], when the Tokugawa shogunate's ''[[Shotoku shinrei|Shôtoku shinrei]]'' ("New Edicts of the Shôtoku era") changed the terms of trade at Nagasaki. From then on, Batavia-based ships traveled to Nagasaki without stopping at Ayutthaya. However, the VOC's Ayutthaya-based ships continued to make the journey, and in fact came to dominate the Ayutthaya-Nagasaki route for a time, pushing Chinese merchants aside, until the Chinese broke the VOC monopoly in the 1750s, and dominated the route themselves until 1800 or so.<ref name=shima102>Shimada, 102.</ref>

The Dutch, meanwhile, made extensive use of Ayutthaya for a few decades longer. Ships traveling between [[Batavia]] and Nagasaki very often made an intermediate stop at Ayutthaya, where they purchased Siamese goods to sell in Japan. The Dutch made use of a triangle trade formation, purchasing textiles in India with Japanese [[silver]], selling the textiles in Ayutthaya and purchasing deer hides, ray skins, sappanwood, etc., and then selling the Siamese goods in Nagasaki for silver.<ref>Shimada, 94.</ref> This pattern lasted until [[1705]], when Batavia decided to close the VOC factories in Ayutthaya and Ligor (a port in the south of Siam); further, the Tokugawa shogunate issued a set of policies in [[1715]] called ''[[Shotoku shinrei|Shôtoku shinrei]]'' ("New Edicts of the Shôtoku era") which changed the terms of trade at Nagasaki. From then on, Batavia-based ships traveled to Nagasaki without stopping at Ayutthaya. However, the VOC still maintained some Siam-based vessels, which continued to make the journey to Nagasaki, and in fact came to dominate the Siam-Nagasaki route for a time, pushing Chinese merchants aside, until the Chinese broke the VOC monopoly in the 1750s, and dominated the route themselves until 1800 or so.<ref name=shima102>Shimada, 102.</ref>

By the early 18th century, the Japanese community in Ayutthaya disappeared, assimilating into the broader Siamese society through intermarriage and acculturation, while the Chinese community grew ever larger, in part due to increased immigration, as many people fled South China during the [[Manchu]] subjugation of the region. By the 1760s, there were perhaps as many as 30,000 people of Chinese descent living in Ayutthaya; though the majority had long been Hokkien speakers (from [[Fujian province]]), they now came to be outnumbered by Teochius from [[Guangdong province|Guangdong]].<ref name=lock244>Lockard, 244.</ref>

By the early 18th century, the Japanese community in Ayutthaya disappeared, assimilating into the broader Siamese society through intermarriage and acculturation, while the Chinese community grew ever larger, in part due to increased immigration, as many people fled South China during the [[Manchu]] subjugation of the region. By the 1760s, there were perhaps as many as 30,000 people of Chinese descent living in Ayutthaya; though the majority had long been Hokkien speakers (from [[Fujian province]]), they now came to be outnumbered by Teochius from [[Guangdong province|Guangdong]].<ref name=lock244>Lockard, 244.</ref>