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According to some sources, Shakushain's death came when he accepted an invitation from Matsumae to parlay, as was a custom in Ainu culture, but was then poisoned by the samurai leaders.<ref>David Howell, "On the Peripheries of the Japanese Archipelago: Ryukyu and Hokkaido," in Howell (ed.), ''The New Cambridge History of Japan'' vol 2 (2024), 617.</ref> It is unclear whether the Matsumae lord killing Shakushain in this fashion was a betrayal of Ainu customs, or something which Ainu chiefs might expect could happen at such a parlay meeting.
According to some sources, Shakushain's death came when he accepted an invitation from Matsumae to parlay, as was a custom in Ainu culture, but was then poisoned by the samurai leaders.<ref>David Howell, "On the Peripheries of the Japanese Archipelago: Ryukyu and Hokkaido," in Howell (ed.), ''The New Cambridge History of Japan'' vol 2 (2024), 617.</ref> It is unclear whether the Matsumae lord killing Shakushain in this fashion was a betrayal of Ainu customs, or something which Ainu chiefs might expect could happen at such a parlay meeting.
The end of the Shakushain War marked the end of large, region-spanning Ainu chiefdoms. From this point forward, Ainu society chiefly consisted of small, kinship-based communities with limited local territories (''iwor'').<ref>Howell, "Peripheries," 618.</ref>
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