Changes

Though most ''daimyô'' were obliged to perform this journey regularly, some ''tozama daimyô'' were granted exceptions, in most cases due to their great service to the realm in other respects, or after successfully arguing for the excessiveness of the burden. These included [[Tsushima han]] which governed relations and trade with [[Joseon|Korea]], and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], which contributed to the defense of the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Some northern domains which contributed to responses to Russian incursions also received temporary exemptions at times.<ref>[[Mark Ravina]], ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 152.</ref> ''Daimyô'' could also request, and be granted, exceptions from ''sankin kôtai'' on a one-time basis, when the lord was ill or the Edo mansion had burned down, or when the domain was fulfilling its obligations to the shogunate through corvée contributions to public works that year.<ref name=nagairei/>

Though most ''daimyô'' were obliged to perform this journey regularly, some ''tozama daimyô'' were granted exceptions, in most cases due to their great service to the realm in other respects, or after successfully arguing for the excessiveness of the burden. These included [[Tsushima han]] which governed relations and trade with [[Joseon|Korea]], and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], which contributed to the defense of the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Some northern domains which contributed to responses to Russian incursions also received temporary exemptions at times.<ref>[[Mark Ravina]], ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 152.</ref> ''Daimyô'' could also request, and be granted, exceptions from ''sankin kôtai'' on a one-time basis, when the lord was ill or the Edo mansion had burned down, or when the domain was fulfilling its obligations to the shogunate through corvée contributions to public works that year.<ref name=nagairei/>

The ''sankin kôtai'' system ensured a reliable flow of considerable numbers of elite travelers across the country, contributing considerably to both official and private construction of [[post-stations]] and inns (and their surrounding towns), lighthouses and port facilities, maintenance of highways, and expansion of travel-related services, such as networks of [[hikyaku|messengers]], [[toiyaba|porters, and horses]]. Special elite lodgings known as ''[[honjin]]'' and ''waki-honjin'', employed chiefly by ''daimyô'' traveling on ''sankin kôtai'', and by others of similar status, quickly became standard sights in most post-towns after the 1642 expansion of ''sankin kôtai'' obligations.<ref name=honjin53>Watanabe, 53.</ref> [[Corvee|Corvée]] labor was employed to provide a considerable portion of the porters, boatmen, and the like. Barrier checkpoints called ''[[sekisho]]'' were established along the highways to regulate travel; among their functions, too, was to enforce that firearms not be carried into Edo (so as to help prevent rebellion), and that women (who might be hostage members of ''daimyô'' families) not be allowed to leave.

The ''sankin kôtai'' system ensured a reliable flow of considerable numbers of elite travelers across the country, contributing considerably to both official and private construction of [[post-stations]] and inns (and their surrounding towns), lighthouses and port facilities, maintenance of highways, and expansion of travel-related services, such as networks of [[hikyaku|messengers]], [[toiyaba|porters, and horses]]. The Tôkaidô saw 146 ''sankin kôtai'' groups every year, in addition to Imperial envoys, shogunal officials, and others.<ref>Miyamoto, ''Nihon no shuku'', 174.</ref> Special elite lodgings known as ''[[honjin]]'' and ''waki-honjin'', employed chiefly by ''daimyô'' traveling on ''sankin kôtai'', and by others of similar status, quickly became standard sights in most post-towns after the 1642 expansion of ''sankin kôtai'' obligations.<ref name=honjin53>Watanabe, 53.</ref> [[Corvee|Corvée]] labor was employed to provide a considerable portion of the porters, boatmen, and the like. Barrier checkpoints called ''[[sekisho]]'' were established along the highways to regulate travel; among their functions, too, was to enforce that firearms not be carried into Edo (so as to help prevent rebellion), and that women (who might be hostage members of ''daimyô'' families) not be allowed to leave.

''Daimyô'' quickly came to establish regular schedules of reservations with particular ''honjin'', which knew to expect them on or around particular dates every year, and knew to prepare a reception in a particular fashion, with the ''daimyô'' paying a set amount of money in gratitude; by making this a regular, established, pattern, it helped avoid difficulties which might emerge from attempting to negotiate and re-negotiate dates, accommodations, and/or payment.<ref name=honjin53/> A larger ''honjin'' might provide lodgings for the ''daimyô'' and as many as sixty of his more esteemed retainers, while additional members of a samurai entourage (or [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo|Ryukyuan]] or [[Korean embassies to Edo|Korean embassy]]) would stay at ''waki-honjin'', ''[[hatagoya]]'' (regular inns, also patronized by individual travelers), private homes, Buddhist temples, and/or Shinto shrines.<ref name=honjin53/> ''Honjin'' generally charged rates they themselves considered quite low, depending on supplemental payments of "''reikin''," or "gratitude money" - essentially, tips - and/or by gifts of special products from the ''daimyô's'' home province. However, for ''daimyô'' struggling with financial difficulties, these additional costs - paid to every ''honjin'' along the journey - could be quite a burden. From the mid-Edo period onwards, many ''daimyô'' began skipping mid-day rests at ''honjin'' along their travel routes, and stopping for food, tea, or a rest at roadside teashops and the like instead, in an effort to save money.<ref name=honjin54>Watanabe, 54.</ref>

''Daimyô'' quickly came to establish regular schedules of reservations with particular ''honjin'', which knew to expect them on or around particular dates every year, and knew to prepare a reception in a particular fashion, with the ''daimyô'' paying a set amount of money in gratitude; by making this a regular, established, pattern, it helped avoid difficulties which might emerge from attempting to negotiate and re-negotiate dates, accommodations, and/or payment.<ref name=honjin53/> A larger ''honjin'' might provide lodgings for the ''daimyô'' and as many as sixty of his more esteemed retainers, while additional members of a samurai entourage (or [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo|Ryukyuan]] or [[Korean embassies to Edo|Korean embassy]]) would stay at ''waki-honjin'', ''[[hatagoya]]'' (regular inns, also patronized by individual travelers), private homes, Buddhist temples, and/or Shinto shrines.<ref name=honjin53/> ''Honjin'' generally charged rates they themselves considered quite low, depending on supplemental payments of "''reikin''," or "gratitude money" - essentially, tips - and/or by gifts of special products from the ''daimyô's'' home province. However, for ''daimyô'' struggling with financial difficulties, these additional costs - paid to every ''honjin'' along the journey - could be quite a burden. From the mid-Edo period onwards, many ''daimyô'' began skipping mid-day rests at ''honjin'' along their travel routes, and stopping for food, tea, or a rest at roadside teashops and the like instead, in an effort to save money.<ref name=honjin54>Watanabe, 54.</ref>

Many ''daimyô'' of western Japan also came to maintain mansions in Osaka and Kyoto as well, where the ''daimyô'' and his retinue would stay during their journeys to and from the shogun's capital, thus contributing to the culture and economy of these cities as well.

Many ''daimyô'' of western Japan also came to maintain mansions in Osaka and Kyoto as well, where the ''daimyô'' and his retinue would stay during their journeys to and from the shogun's capital, thus contributing to the culture and economy of these cities as well.

In the early Edo period, most ''daimyô'' of Kyushu, Shikoku, and western Honshû, traveled by ship to [[Osaka]]; ''[[sekibune]]'' were converted into luxurious ''gozabune'' for this portion of the journey, and riverboats were used to travel up the [[Yodo River]] from Osaka to [[Fushimi]], from which the ''daimyô'' would then travel overland to Kyoto proper, and then along the [[Tokaido|Tôkaidô]] to Edo. Later on, however, many ''daimyô'' switched to traveling overland for as much of the journey as they could, avoiding sea travel. The [[Shimazu clan]] lords of [[Satsuma han]] likely had the longest journey; it typically took 40 to 60 days to travel the 440 ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'' to Edo. Though they originally sailed to Osaka from Kumisaki (Satsuma Sendai) or Wakimoto (Akune) on Kyushu's west coast, or from Hososhima in [[Hyuga province|Hyûga province]] on Kyushu's east coast, they later switched to marching overland across Kyushu to [[Shimonoseki]], and then walking the [[Sanyodo|San'yôdô]] to Osaka.<ref>Gallery labels, [[Shokoshuseikan|Shôkoshûseikan]], Kagoshima.</ref>

In the early Edo period, most ''daimyô'' of Kyushu, Shikoku, and western Honshû, traveled by ship to [[Osaka]]; ''[[sekibune]]'' were converted into luxurious ''gozabune'' for this portion of the journey, and riverboats were used to travel up the [[Yodo River]] from Osaka to [[Fushimi]], from which the ''daimyô'' would then travel overland to Kyoto proper, and then along the [[Tokaido|Tôkaidô]] to Edo. Later on, however, many ''daimyô'' switched to traveling overland for as much of the journey as they could, avoiding sea travel. The [[Shimazu clan]] lords of [[Satsuma han]] likely had the longest journey; it typically took 40 to 60 days to travel the 440 ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'' to Edo. Though they originally sailed to Osaka from Kumisaki (Satsuma Sendai) or Wakimoto (Akune) on Kyushu's west coast, or from Hososhima in [[Hyuga province|Hyûga province]] on Kyushu's east coast, they later switched to marching overland across Kyushu to [[Shimonoseki]], and then walking the [[Sanyodo|San'yôdô]] to Osaka.<ref>Gallery labels, [[Shokoshuseikan|Shôkoshûseikan]], Kagoshima.</ref> ''Daimyô'' who did not maintain their own ships were typically provided ships by other ''daimyô'', at the orders of the shogun; this was particularly the case for the river journey up the Yodo River.<ref>Ronald Toby ロナルド・トビ, ''"Sakoku" toiu gaikô'' 「鎖国」という外交, Tokyo: Shogakukan (2008), 233.</ref>

 

When ''daimyô'' passed through the territory of another lord, the latter typically provided warriors to serve as a guard, or escort, through the territory.<ref>Miyamoto, ''Nihon no shuku'', 174.</ref> They also often dispatched a retainer or other official (or traveled himself, depending on the rank and identity of the visiting ''daimyô'') to formally meet with the traveling ''daimyô'', extend greetings, and offer gifts; the traveling ''daimyô'' would then send a formal response in return, often also accompanied by gifts.<ref>Noda Hiroko 野田浩子, “Oitoma kara sankin made no ichi-nen” 御暇から参勤までの一年, in Asao Naohiro 朝尾直弘 (ed.), ''Fudai daimyô Ii ke no girei'' 譜代大名井伊家の儀礼, Hikone Castle Museum (2004), 149.</ref>

The financial costs of ''sankin kôtai'' were among the heaviest burdens upon ''daimyô'' budgets, leading to many ''daimyô'' incurring very significant debts over the course of the period. Despite the expense, however, ''daimyô'' often felt obligated to maintain large entourages and lavish traveling conditions in order to maintain impressions of their power and prestige; not only the number of men in one's entourage, but the number of spears preceding and following the ''daimyô'' in procession, the number of certain types of baskets and baggage, among other elements of performance and display, meant a lot in terms of representing one's prestige and power to all those who could see it. For this reason, though the shogunate repeatedly tried to restrict the allowable size of ''sankin kôtai'' entourages, ''daimyô'' regularly exceeded the official limits. For example, a set of regulations issued in [[1711]] limited the largest domains to no more than four hundred and a few tens of men, plus another 15-20 mounted warriors. ''Daimyô'' with territories assessed at 100-200,000 ''koku'' were to have roughly half that number (200-something men, plus ten mounted warriors). Those between 50-100,000 ''koku'' might have around 160 men, plus roughly seven mounted warriors. And finally, the smallest domains were to have entourages numbering around fifty, with only three or four mounted warriors among them.<ref name=honjin53/>

The financial costs of ''sankin kôtai'' were among the heaviest burdens upon ''daimyô'' budgets, leading to many ''daimyô'' incurring very significant debts over the course of the period. Despite the expense, however, ''daimyô'' often felt obligated to maintain large entourages and lavish traveling conditions in order to maintain impressions of their power and prestige; not only the number of men in one's entourage, but the number of spears preceding and following the ''daimyô'' in procession, the number of certain types of baskets and baggage, among other elements of performance and display, meant a lot in terms of representing one's prestige and power to all those who could see it. For this reason, though the shogunate repeatedly tried to restrict the allowable size of ''sankin kôtai'' entourages, ''daimyô'' regularly exceeded the official limits. For example, a set of regulations issued in [[1711]] limited the largest domains to no more than four hundred and a few tens of men, plus another 15-20 mounted warriors. ''Daimyô'' with territories assessed at 100-200,000 ''koku'' were to have roughly half that number (200-something men, plus ten mounted warriors). Those between 50-100,000 ''koku'' might have around 160 men, plus roughly seven mounted warriors. And finally, the smallest domains were to have entourages numbering around fifty, with only three or four mounted warriors among them.<ref name=honjin53/>

The actual numbers often far exceeded these regulations, but also varied widely from domain to domain, and across the period, with [[Satsuma han]], for example, bringing an entourage of over 1,200 men to Edo in [[1635]], but only around 500-600 on many other occasions. [[Kaga han]] occasionally brought as many as 2,500 men to Edo. These numbers, however, represent only the people brought along from the home province, and do not include the many porters and laborers typically hired to carry luggage and otherwise accompany the samurai entourage along the road.<ref name=honjin53/> For ''daimyô'' with the largest territories (over 200,000 ''koku''), this core group of retainers generally included 15-20 retainers on horseback, 120-130 ''[[ashigaru]]'', and 250-300 ''[[chugen|chûgen]]'' (low-ranking figures between [[samurai]] and commoner status). ''Daimyô'' with a fief between 100,000 and 200,000 ''koku'' might be accompanied by ten mounted retainers, 80 ''ashigaru'', and 140-150 ''chûgen''. For those above 50,000 ''koku'', perhaps seven mounted officials, 60 ''ashigaru'', and 100 ''chûgen''. And for the lowest-ranking ''daimyô'', three mounted officials, twenty ''ashigaru'', and thirty ''chûgen''.<ref>Miyamoto, 168.</ref>

The actual numbers often far exceeded these regulations, but also varied widely from domain to domain, and across the period, with [[Satsuma han]], for example, bringing an entourage of over 1,200 men to Edo in [[1635]], but only around 500-600 on many other occasions. [[Kaga han]] occasionally brought as many as 2,500 men to Edo. These numbers, however, represent only the people brought along from the home province, and do not include the many porters and laborers typically hired to carry luggage and otherwise accompany the samurai entourage along the road.<ref name=honjin53/> For ''daimyô'' with the largest territories (over 200,000 ''koku''), this core group of retainers generally included 15-20 retainers on horseback, 120-130 ''[[ashigaru]]'', and 250-300 ''[[chugen|chûgen]]'' (low-ranking figures between [[samurai]] and commoner status). ''Daimyô'' with a fief between 100,000 and 200,000 ''koku'' might be accompanied by ten mounted retainers, 80 ''ashigaru'', and 140-150 ''chûgen''. For those above 50,000 ''koku'', perhaps seven mounted officials, 60 ''ashigaru'', and 100 ''chûgen''. And for the lowest-ranking ''daimyô'', three mounted officials, twenty ''ashigaru'', and thirty ''chûgen''.<ref>Miyamoto, ''Nihon no shuku'', 168.</ref>

Though still one of the largest domains, and thus something of an exception, [[Tosa han]] has been oft-discussed as an example of the size and extent of the undertaking of ''sankin kôtai'' journeys. Tosa generally moved 1,500 to 3,000 people and their baggage each year between the home province and Edo, a 500 mile journey over mountains, seas, and highway. In 1697, over 2,800 people accompanied the lord.<ref>These numbers include footsoldiers (''ashigaru''), menial attendants, and others, and only a small portion of mounted samurai. Constantine Vaporis, Tour of Duty: Samurai, Military Service in Edo, and the Culture of Early Modern Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 74.</ref> Three years earlier, while the lord was resident in Edo, there were over 4,550 other Tosa people resident there with him. The domain had to pay porters, innkeepers, shippers, and food suppliers for the journey, and then also suppliers of food and other necessities (and luxuries) to this large Tosa population in the capital, as well as carpenters and artisans to service the [[Tosa Edo mansion|domain mansion]]. In 1688, Tosa's total domain budget was 3,953 ''[[currency|kan]]'', of which 300 paid for the ''sankin kôtai'' journey, 1,422 paid for expenses related to the mansion in Edo, and 1,042 went to paying off loans from Osaka and Edo merchants. [[Wakayama han]], the domain of the [[Kishu Tokugawa clan|Kishû Tokugawa clan]], to give another example, had a total annual revenue of 30-40,000 ''[[currency|ryô]]'' in [[1831]], when it spent 12,930 ''ryô'' on the lord's journey to Edo.<ref name=honjin53/> In total, domains typically spent between 40% and 70% of their annual budgets on costs related to ''sankin kôtai''.<ref>[[Luke Roberts]], ''Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain'', Cambridge University Press (1998), 18.</ref>  

Though still one of the largest domains, and thus something of an exception, [[Tosa han]] has been oft-discussed as an example of the size and extent of the undertaking of ''sankin kôtai'' journeys. Tosa generally moved 1,500 to 3,000 people and their baggage each year between the home province and Edo, a 500 mile journey over mountains, seas, and highway. In 1697, over 2,800 people accompanied the lord.<ref>These numbers include footsoldiers (''ashigaru''), menial attendants, and others, and only a small portion of mounted samurai. Constantine Vaporis, Tour of Duty: Samurai, Military Service in Edo, and the Culture of Early Modern Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 74.</ref> Three years earlier, while the lord was resident in Edo, there were over 4,550 other Tosa people resident there with him. The domain had to pay porters, innkeepers, shippers, and food suppliers for the journey, and then also suppliers of food and other necessities (and luxuries) to this large Tosa population in the capital, as well as carpenters and artisans to service the [[Tosa Edo mansion|domain mansion]]. In 1688, Tosa's total domain budget was 3,953 ''[[currency|kan]]'', of which 300 paid for the ''sankin kôtai'' journey, 1,422 paid for expenses related to the mansion in Edo, and 1,042 went to paying off loans from Osaka and Edo merchants. [[Wakayama han]], the domain of the [[Kishu Tokugawa clan|Kishû Tokugawa clan]], to give another example, had a total annual revenue of 30-40,000 ''[[currency|ryô]]'' in [[1831]], when it spent 12,930 ''ryô'' on the lord's journey to Edo.<ref name=honjin53/> In total, domains typically spent between 40% and 70% of their annual budgets on costs related to ''sankin kôtai''.<ref>[[Luke Roberts]], ''Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain'', Cambridge University Press (1998), 18.</ref>