Changes

*''Japanese/Chinese/Korean'': 倭寇 ''(wakou / wōkòu / waegu)''

*''Japanese/Chinese/Korean'': 倭寇 ''(wakou / wōkòu / waegu)''

The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura]] to early [[Edo period]]s, the phenomenon peaking in the 16th century (the late [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] or [[Sengoku period]]). The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref>

The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura]] to early [[Edo period]]s, the phenomenon peaking in the 16th century (the late [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] or [[Sengoku period]]). The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese, Korean, or Ryukyuan.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref><ref name=miki>Watanabe Miki, “Shifting Representations of Ryukyuans between Early Modern China and Japan,” in Caroli (ed.), ''Imagined Okinawa: Challenge from Time and Space'', Ca' Foscari University in Venice (2015), 197.</ref>

Chinese primarily sources of the mid-16th century identify the ''wakô'' problem at that time in particular as stemming chiefly from the activities of merchants and others in China, who hired or otherwise encouraged Japanese to be involved.

Chinese primarily sources of the mid-16th century identify the ''wakô'' problem at that time in particular as stemming chiefly from the activities of merchants and others in China, who hired or otherwise encouraged Japanese to be involved.

Roughly 1,200 junks, large and small, could be found along the China coast on any given day around this time. Most were simple traders, armed to defend themselves where the Ming authorities wouldn't, and considered "smugglers" under Ming law. Others made a living as armed arbiters, helping to resolve disputes and collect debts where the Ming authorities failed to intervene.<ref>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 163.</ref>

Roughly 1,200 junks, large and small, could be found along the China coast on any given day around this time. Most were simple traders, armed to defend themselves where the Ming authorities wouldn't, and considered "smugglers" under Ming law. Others made a living as armed arbiters, helping to resolve disputes and collect debts where the Ming authorities failed to intervene.<ref>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 163.</ref>

Though the term ''wakô'' would come to be applied to a wide range of people, engaging in a wide range of activities, including Chinese traders and pirates, and Japanese traders, that is not to say that there were not, in fact, genuine Japanese pirates, raiders, brigands, or whatever term may wish to apply active on the seas at this time. The [[Murakami clan]]<!--see 村上水軍--> of [[Iyo province]], known for their piratical activities in the [[Inland Sea]], were among these; [[Murakami Zusho]], lord of Nôshima<!--能島--> is recorded as having led attacks on the Chinese coast, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia. [[Iida Koichiro|Iida Kôichirô]] of Iyo and [[Kitaura Kanjuro|Kitaura Kanjûrô]] of [[Bingo province|Bingo]] are also known to have commanded raiding parties around this time. One contemporary source relates that "the seven bands" of ''wakô'', though presumably there were many more groups than that, grew to number as many as 1,000 men by 1555, if not earlier, incorporating people from a wide range of walks of life, including [[ronin]], fishermen, and others, mainly from Kyushu and Shikoku.<ref name=so1516>So. pp15-16.</ref>

Though the term ''wakô'' would come to be applied to a wide range of people, engaging in a wide range of activities, including Chinese traders and pirates, and Japanese traders, that is not to say that there were not, in fact, genuine Japanese pirates, raiders, brigands, or whatever term may wish to apply active on the seas at this time. The [[Murakami clan]]<!--see 村上水軍--> of [[Iyo province]], known for their piratical activities in the [[Inland Sea]], were among these; [[Murakami Zusho]], lord of Nôshima<!--能島--> is recorded as having led attacks on the Chinese coast, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia. [[Iida Koichiro|Iida Kôichirô]] of Iyo and [[Kitaura Kanjuro|Kitaura Kanjûrô]] of [[Bingo province|Bingo]] are also known to have commanded raiding parties around this time. One contemporary source relates that "the seven bands" of ''wakô'', though presumably there were many more groups than that, grew to number as many as 1,000 men by 1555, if not earlier, incorporating people from a wide range of walks of life, including [[ronin]], fishermen, and others, mainly from Kyushu and Shikoku.<ref name=so1516>So. pp15-16.</ref> Despite Chinese conceptions or assertions that all of these pirates were "Japanese pirates," in fact the Ming authorities paid out different levels of rewards to anyone who captured or killed a pirate, depending on the identity (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, or Korean) of the pirate.<ref name=miki/>

Concurrent [[tribute]] missions sent by the [[Ouchi clan|Ôuchi]] and [[Hosokawa clan|Hosokawa families]] clashed in [[1523]], and burned Ningpo, becoming labeled as ''wakô''. The Chinese authorities responded by banning foreign trade in the area around Ningpo. This led in turn to a rise in illegal trade between the coastal Chinese on the one hand with Japanese and other foreigners. A number of Chinese officials and merchants came to owe great debts to Japanese (or other foreign) traders, and though they sought aid from the local authorities, the foreigners resorted to piracy in order to reclaim the funds owed them, and for survival in the face of Chinese authorities seeking to capture them for the crime of participating in illegal trade.<ref>So. p5.</ref> Denied access to a satisfactory volume of official trade<ref>The Ôuchi sent the last Japanese tribute mission to China in 1549, but as tribute missions only occurred once in a number of years, and only consisted of a small number of ships (and thus, brought limited revenues), the clan desired a greater volume of trade.</ref>, the Ôuchi clan remained prominent for some time in commanding, backing, or otherwise encouraging some ''wakô'' bands including those led by prominent figures from other provinces and regions. The Ôuchi are often cited as among the chief backers of the ''wakô'', and it is through them that many draw connections between the ''wakô'' and Japanese national ambitions. However, the clan was destroyed by the [[Mori clan|Môri]] in [[1557]], while ''wakô'' activity continued.<ref>So. pp16-17. While the Ôuchi are mentioned in some contemporary Japanese sources, So Kwan-wai notes that most contemporary Chinese sources emphasize the Chinese involvement in organizing and leading ''wakô'' bands, and do not mention the Ôuchi at all.</ref>

Concurrent [[tribute]] missions sent by the [[Ouchi clan|Ôuchi]] and [[Hosokawa clan|Hosokawa families]] clashed in [[1523]], and burned Ningpo, becoming labeled as ''wakô''. The Chinese authorities responded by banning foreign trade in the area around Ningpo. This led in turn to a rise in illegal trade between the coastal Chinese on the one hand with Japanese and other foreigners. A number of Chinese officials and merchants came to owe great debts to Japanese (or other foreign) traders, and though they sought aid from the local authorities, the foreigners resorted to piracy in order to reclaim the funds owed them, and for survival in the face of Chinese authorities seeking to capture them for the crime of participating in illegal trade.<ref>So. p5.</ref> Denied access to a satisfactory volume of official trade<ref>The Ôuchi sent the last Japanese tribute mission to China in 1549, but as tribute missions only occurred once in a number of years, and only consisted of a small number of ships (and thus, brought limited revenues), the clan desired a greater volume of trade.</ref>, the Ôuchi clan remained prominent for some time in commanding, backing, or otherwise encouraging some ''wakô'' bands including those led by prominent figures from other provinces and regions. The Ôuchi are often cited as among the chief backers of the ''wakô'', and it is through them that many draw connections between the ''wakô'' and Japanese national ambitions. However, the clan was destroyed by the [[Mori clan|Môri]] in [[1557]], while ''wakô'' activity continued.<ref>So. pp16-17. While the Ôuchi are mentioned in some contemporary Japanese sources, So Kwan-wai notes that most contemporary Chinese sources emphasize the Chinese involvement in organizing and leading ''wakô'' bands, and do not mention the Ôuchi at all.</ref>