Changes

Under the Qianlong Emperor, the Qing Empire engaged in [[Ten Great Campaigns]], including intervention in a succession dispute in Vietnam in [[1789]]; this ended in the expulsion of Chinese (Manchu) military force & civil control from Vietnam. The Chinese would fight for Vietnam again in [[1884]], this time [[Sino-French War|against the French]]. Siam's final tribute mission to China took place in [[1853]].

Under the Qianlong Emperor, the Qing Empire engaged in [[Ten Great Campaigns]], including intervention in a succession dispute in Vietnam in [[1789]]; this ended in the expulsion of Chinese (Manchu) military force & civil control from Vietnam. The Chinese would fight for Vietnam again in [[1884]], this time [[Sino-French War|against the French]]. Siam's final tribute mission to China took place in [[1853]].

The early encounters with Russia were to be just the beginning of broader and deeper interactions with Western powers. The [[1793]] British mission to the Court of the Qianlong Emperor led by [[George Lord Macartney]] is perhaps the most oft-discussed, but between the establishment of the Qing and the imposition of radical changes to their foreign relations following the [[Opium War]] in [[1842]], the Qing saw a total of 27 diplomatic missions from Western powers, including three from Britain, one from the United States, three from the Vatican, four from the Dutch, four from Portugal, and twelve from Russia.<ref>Erik Ringmar, "The Ritual/Performance Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis: European Diplomats at the Chinese Court," ''Rethinking Foreign Policy'' 101 (2012), 4.</ref>

The early encounters with Russia were to be just the beginning of broader and deeper interactions with Western powers. The [[1793]] British mission to the Court of the Qianlong Emperor led by [[George Lord Macartney]] is perhaps the most oft-discussed, but between the establishment of the Qing and the end of the [[Second Opium War]] in [[1860]], the Qing saw a total of 27 diplomatic missions from Western powers, including three from Britain, one from the United States, three from the Vatican, four from the Dutch, four from Portugal, and twelve from Russia.<ref>Erik Ringmar, "The Ritual/Performance Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis: European Diplomats at the Chinese Court," ''Rethinking Foreign Policy'' 101 (2012), 4.</ref>

The Taiping Rebellion ended in 1864, and the Imperial Court set in motion the [[Tongzhi Restoration]], a series of reforms aimed at slowing or reversing the dynasty's decline. While the expansion of foreign presence and influence in China at this time was widely seen in a negative light, the end of the Taiping Rebellion brought at least a respite from the war and chaos of previous decades, and is said to have been encouraging enough in that alone to warrant some calling the period a "revival" or "restoration." While China did not yet at this time set itself on the course towards industrialization, the economy was strengthened and expanded by a variety of agricultural policies, land reclamation projects, tax reforms, improvements in local administration, and so forth. Even among those who did advocate for an adoption of Western technologies (especially in military applications), the focus was on a restoration of virtuous government as conceived traditionally, according to Confucian ideals of the upright and virtuous gentleman scholar administrator.<ref>Wm. Theodore de Bary and Wing-sit Chan, ''Sources of Chinese Tradition'', vol 2, Columbia University Press (1964), 43-44.</ref>

The Taiping Rebellion ended in 1864, and the Imperial Court set in motion the [[Tongzhi Restoration]], a series of reforms aimed at slowing or reversing the dynasty's decline. While the expansion of foreign presence and influence in China at this time was widely seen in a negative light, the end of the Taiping Rebellion brought at least a respite from the war and chaos of previous decades, and is said to have been encouraging enough in that alone to warrant some calling the period a "revival" or "restoration." While China did not yet at this time set itself on the course towards industrialization, the economy was strengthened and expanded by a variety of agricultural policies, land reclamation projects, tax reforms, improvements in local administration, and so forth. Even among those who did advocate for an adoption of Western technologies (especially in military applications), the focus was on a restoration of virtuous government as conceived traditionally, according to Confucian ideals of the upright and virtuous gentleman scholar administrator.<ref>Wm. Theodore de Bary and Wing-sit Chan, ''Sources of Chinese Tradition'', vol 2, Columbia University Press (1964), 43-44.</ref>