Changes

==Economics==

==Economics==

In terms of commerce, industry, and infrastructure, the country modernized perhaps more quickly than any country ever has. Railroads, electricity, gaslamps, steamships, and countless other technological advances which began to be introduced in the [[Bakumatsu]] era spread, quickly becoming ubiquitous. Banks, factories, import-export companies, and other sorts of modern corporate businesses abounded, and Japan quickly became a competitive force on the world stage. The government hired some 3,000 [[oyatoi gaikokujin|foreigners]] to serve as advisors and teachers in guiding these infrastructure efforts, and in teaching the first generation of Japanese experts at the newly established Imperial universities. The majority by far were experts in engineering and architecture, and were employed by the [[Ministry of Education]].<ref>William Coaldrake, ''Architecture and Authority in Japan'', Routledge (1996), 216.</ref>

In terms of commerce, industry, and infrastructure, the country modernized perhaps more quickly than any country ever has. Railroads, electricity, gaslamps, steamships, and countless other technological advances which began to be introduced in the [[Bakumatsu]] era spread, quickly becoming ubiquitous. Banks, factories, import-export companies, and the first ''[[zaibatsu]]'' and ''[[keiretsu]]'' conglomerates, among other sorts of modern corporate businesses abounded, and Japan quickly became a competitive force on the world stage.

 

The government hired some 3,000 [[oyatoi gaikokujin|foreigners]] to serve as advisors and teachers in guiding these infrastructure efforts, and in teaching the first generation of Japanese experts at the newly established Imperial universities. The majority by far were experts in engineering and architecture, and were employed by the [[Ministry of Education]].<ref>William Coaldrake, ''Architecture and Authority in Japan'', Routledge (1996), 216.</ref>

Much of these economic changes were driven by individual entrepreneurs, including many of the former merchant class (such as the founders of Mitsukoshi, etc.), and also many of the former samurai class; for example, the [[Shimazu clan]] shifted their family wealth into the Shimazu Corporation, and low-ranking samurai [[Iwasaki Yataro|Iwasaki Yatarô]] founded [[Mitsubishi]]. But much of this economic modernization and growth was also fueled by the government, which promoted nationalist slogans such as ''bunmei kaika'' (文明開化, "civilization and enlightenment"), ''fukoku kyôhei'' (富国強兵, "prosperous country, strong military"), ''wakon yôsai'' (和魂洋才, "Japanese spirit, Western technique"), and ''shokusan kôgyô'' (殖産興業, promotion of industry).

Much of these economic changes were driven by individual entrepreneurs, including many of the former merchant class (such as the founders of Mitsukoshi, etc.), and also many of the former samurai class; for example, the [[Shimazu clan]] shifted their family wealth into the Shimazu Corporation, and low-ranking samurai [[Iwasaki Yataro|Iwasaki Yatarô]] founded [[Mitsubishi]]. But much of this economic modernization and growth was also fueled by the government, which promoted nationalist slogans such as ''bunmei kaika'' (文明開化, "civilization and enlightenment"), ''fukoku kyôhei'' (富国強兵, "prosperous country, strong military"), ''wakon yôsai'' (和魂洋才, "Japanese spirit, Western technique"), and ''shokusan kôgyô'' (殖産興業, promotion of industry).

In response to this, however, a number of scholars, writers, and artists perceived the loss of regional folk traditions as an existential threat to Japanese identity. They argued that Japanese identity was grounded fundamentally in folk traditions, including especially folk arts (''[[mingei]]'') such as pottery and textiles, and that this was being actively destroyed by the nationalization and modernization efforts; as Japan modernized, they found in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], [[Okinawa]], [[Colonial Korea|Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] what they claimed was an earlier, truer form of Japanese culture, which was being lost and which needed to be recovered. While their efforts certainly did serve to revive or preserve many folk traditions which might otherwise have been lost, it is important to note that the ''Mingei'' movement was not in fact rescuing these traditions as they truly had been in ages past, but rather was re-inventing, re-conceptualizing these arts; the ''Mingei'' vision of Japanese culture, history, and identity was an invented tradition<ref>Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. ''The Invention of Tradition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012.</ref> no less so than the more official and mainstream efforts to promote National arts.

In response to this, however, a number of scholars, writers, and artists perceived the loss of regional folk traditions as an existential threat to Japanese identity. They argued that Japanese identity was grounded fundamentally in folk traditions, including especially folk arts (''[[mingei]]'') such as pottery and textiles, and that this was being actively destroyed by the nationalization and modernization efforts; as Japan modernized, they found in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], [[Okinawa]], [[Colonial Korea|Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] what they claimed was an earlier, truer form of Japanese culture, which was being lost and which needed to be recovered. While their efforts certainly did serve to revive or preserve many folk traditions which might otherwise have been lost, it is important to note that the ''Mingei'' movement was not in fact rescuing these traditions as they truly had been in ages past, but rather was re-inventing, re-conceptualizing these arts; the ''Mingei'' vision of Japanese culture, history, and identity was an invented tradition<ref>Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. ''The Invention of Tradition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012.</ref> no less so than the more official and mainstream efforts to promote National arts.

Trough participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]], the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions."  

Trough participation in [[World's Fairs]], the establishment of [[Tokyo National Museum|Imperial (National) Museums]], the establishment of a system of [[National Treasures]], and the promotion of particular art forms, among other means, the government worked to prove to the Japanese people, and to the world, that Japan was modern, civilized, and possessed just as worthy a tradition and history as any other great nation. Many new art forms, such as ''[[Nihonga]]'' (neo-traditional painting) and ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) were born out of this, while many older art forms, such as [[Noh]], [[kabuki]], and [[tea ceremony]], were formalized or re-invented as "national traditions." Others, such as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', simply continued along, changing and developing but not being re-conceptualized entirely. Artists such as [[Kobyashi Kiyochika]] designed ''ukiyo-e'' propaganda prints which served to report on national events, such as the promulgation of the Constitution, and the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. By the end of the period, however, ''ukiyo-e'' had fallen away, and had been replaced by modern print forms such as ''[[shin hanga]]'' ("new prints") and ''[[sosaku hanga|sôsaku hanga]]'' ("creative prints"). Photography, postcards, newspapers, and a variety of other modern arts & cultural forms also developed and became widespread in the Meiji period.

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>

The city of [[Kyoto]] was intentionally shaped into a symbol of Japan's great, noble, past, and numerous historical figures (such as [[Kusunoki Masashige]]) were revived and celebrated as national heroes. [[Nitobe Inazo|Nitobe Inazô]] invented and promoted the notion of ''[[bushido]]'' as a corollary to Europe's great tradition of chivalry. A European-style aristocratic peerage, complete with titles equivalent to Baron, Duke, and Marquis, was implemented, and many classical government positions were given equivalent European names; for example, the post of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was named [[Lord of the Privy Seal]], and was, at least partially, patterned in its new, modern incarnation, after the position of Lord of the Privy Seal in European courts.<ref>Ben Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Edition Synapse (2000), 67.</ref>

For the first decade or two of the period, the Meiji government made little concerted effort to guide the (re)building and shaping of Tokyo and Kyoto, and in fact for the first several years of the period the government remained undecided as to which city would be the official capital, or whether they might have multiple capitals. Even after it was decided that Tokyo would be the national, Imperial, capital, for many years little coordinated effort was made to reshape the city into a national symbol and modern capital in the Western/modern mode. Only in the late 1880s and 1890s (albeit with a few earlier exceptions) did the government begin to build grand boulevards, triumphal arches, massive public parks, and statues of national heroes. And it was only at that time, in fact, that the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]] itself was (re)built, from being [[Edo castle|a samurai castle]] which largely burned down in an 187X blaze, to being a modern Imperial palace. Similarly, the old imperial capital of Kyoto was largely left to simply fall into disrepair from 1868 until the 1880s, before the government decided to make a concerted effort to shape Kyoto into a powerful symbol of Japan's illustrious past. Beginning in the 1880s, the [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]] was repaired, and much of its grounds transformed into a public park, with many other sites in the city attracting government attention and support as well. Historian [[Takashi Fujitani]] writes of a "museumification of Kyoto" which was effected at this time, transforming the city into something "not unlike a public museum in its display of objects that were to be appreciated as the true representations of history."<ref>Takashi Fujitani, ''Splendid Monarchy'', UC Press (1998), 60-61.</ref>

For the first decade or two of the period, the Meiji government made little concerted effort to guide the (re)building and shaping of Tokyo and Kyoto, and in fact for the first several years of the period the government remained undecided as to which city would be the official capital, or whether they might have multiple capitals. Even after it was decided that Tokyo would be the national, Imperial, capital, for many years little coordinated effort was made to reshape the city into a national symbol and modern capital in the Western/modern mode. The Imperial family moved from Kyoto into a set of buildings in the nishi-no-maru (western bailey) of [[Edo castle]] as early as [[1869]], but it was only in the late 1880s and 1890s (albeit with a few earlier exceptions) that the government begin to build grand boulevards, triumphal arches, massive public parks, and statues of national heroes. And it was only in 1889 that the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]] itself was (re)built, the modern imperial palace created out of the former shogunal castle. Similarly, the old imperial capital of Kyoto was largely left to simply fall into disrepair from 1868 until the 1880s, before the government decided to make a concerted effort to shape Kyoto into a powerful symbol of Japan's illustrious past. Beginning in the 1880s, the [[Kyoto Imperial Palace]] was repaired, and much of its grounds transformed into a public park, with many other sites in the city attracting government attention and support as well. Historian [[Takashi Fujitani]] writes of a "museumification of Kyoto" which was effected at this time, transforming the city into something "not unlike a public museum in its display of objects that were to be appreciated as the true representations of history."<ref>Takashi Fujitani, ''Splendid Monarchy'', UC Press (1998), 60-61.</ref>

[[State Shinto]] was also developed, along with a complex set of rituals, tradition, and national ideology surrounding the Emperor. However, like much else in this period, this developed over time. Though many of the earliest Meiji period documents express adulation of the emperor, continuing the ''[[sonno|sonnô]] [[joi|jôi]]'' and ''[[kokugaku]]'' rhetoric which preceded them, it was only after the [[1895]] [[Sino-Japanese War|victory over the Chinese]] that the ultranationalist forms of "emperor-worship" emblematic of the 1930s-1940s began to settle into place.<ref>David Lu, ''Japan: A Documentary History'', M.E. Sharpe (1997), 306.</ref> [[Buddhism]] was at the same time very briefly but very powerfully suppressed; a great many temples were closed in [[1869]]-[[1870]] or so, and a great many Buddhist artworks, icons, and artifacts were either sold to foreign collectors or were destroyed.

[[State Shinto]] was also developed, along with a complex set of rituals, tradition, and national ideology surrounding the Emperor. However, like much else in this period, this developed over time. Though many of the earliest Meiji period documents express adulation of the emperor, continuing the ''[[sonno|sonnô]] [[joi|jôi]]'' and ''[[kokugaku]]'' rhetoric which preceded them, it was only after the [[1895]] [[Sino-Japanese War|victory over the Chinese]] that the ultranationalist forms of "emperor-worship" emblematic of the 1930s-1940s began to settle into place.<ref>David Lu, ''Japan: A Documentary History'', M.E. Sharpe (1997), 306.</ref> [[Buddhism]] was at the same time very briefly but very powerfully suppressed; a great many temples were closed in [[1869]]-[[1870]] or so, and a great many Buddhist artworks, icons, and artifacts were either sold to foreign collectors or were destroyed.