Changes

All three of the major cities published the full range of types or themes of publications, but each also came to be known especially, or more strongly, for certain types of works. Kyoto remained the center of production of Buddhist and Confucian texts, as it had more or less always been, while Osaka publishers produced a great many more practical works, such as encyclopedias; popular literature, meanwhile, took off especially powerfully in Edo. Publishing in Kyoto and Osaka also tended to be more heavily directed towards smaller print runs of more expensive, high quality printed works commissioned by [[poetry circles]] or other relatively exclusive groups, while Edo publishing was more heavily directed towards high-volume production of less expensive, less high-quality popular materials.

All three of the major cities published the full range of types or themes of publications, but each also came to be known especially, or more strongly, for certain types of works. Kyoto remained the center of production of Buddhist and Confucian texts, as it had more or less always been, while Osaka publishers produced a great many more practical works, such as encyclopedias; popular literature, meanwhile, took off especially powerfully in Edo. Publishing in Kyoto and Osaka also tended to be more heavily directed towards smaller print runs of more expensive, high quality printed works commissioned by [[poetry circles]] or other relatively exclusive groups, while Edo publishing was more heavily directed towards high-volume production of less expensive, less high-quality popular materials.

Publishing in Japan was dominated chiefly by the ''[[chonin|chônin]]'' commoner class, and by commercial interests. This was in stark contrast to the situation in certain places elsewhere in the world, such as in [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, where the court maintained control over nearly all publishing. In Japan, certain publishers enjoyed exclusive rights granted them by the shogunate to publish ''daimyô'' directories called ''[[bukan]]'', calendars (the publishing of which was restricted otherwise), and city maps, but outside of this, and the occasional commissions from the shogunate for the production of given publications, for the most part the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was relatively uninvolved in publishing. Censorship activities were delegated to the publishers' guilds, and were not performed by shogunate officials.<ref>Ikegami, 308.</ref> Formal edicts continued to be issued in manuscript form.<ref>Smith. p342.</ref>

Publishing in Japan was dominated chiefly by the ''[[chonin|chônin]]'' commoner class, and by commercial interests. This was in stark contrast to the situation in certain places elsewhere in the world, such as in [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, where the court maintained control over nearly all publishing. In Japan, certain publishers enjoyed exclusive rights granted them by the shogunate to publish ''daimyô'' directories called ''[[bukan]]'', calendars (the publishing of which was restricted otherwise), and city maps, but outside of this, and the occasional commissions from the shogunate for the production of given publications, for the most part the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was relatively uninvolved in publishing. Censorship activities were delegated to the publishers' guilds, and were not performed by shogunate officials.<ref>Ikegami, 308.</ref> Formal edicts continued to be issued in manuscript form.<ref>Smith. p342.</ref>

The publishing guild's coordinators of censorship and licensing were known as ''gyôji''. Following the issuance of a series of publishing regulations by the shogunate in [[1722]], publishers had to submit an application to the ''gyôji'' to carve new woodblocks for either new books, or even for reprints of old books. The ''gyôji'' could approve or reject the project, based on shogunate censorship guidelines, or could forward the application to shogunal magistrates for further consideration. Whether a project too closely resembled a book already being published by a competitor was also a consideration which the guild's censors took into account. If approved, the publisher finally had to submit the application (''kaihan negai'') again, along with the manuscript, this time to shogunal officials. Finally, if approved by the shogunate, the guild could register the copyright for that publication. While owning the actual physical woodblocks was the most standard form of copyright (literally, right to copy, right to print, that work), the guild's registration list also protected those who lost the physical blocks, for example, in a fire.<ref>Ikegami, 309.</ref>

The publishing guild's coordinators of censorship and licensing were known as ''gyôji''. Following the issuance of a series of publishing regulations by the shogunate in 1722, publishers had to submit an application to the ''gyôji'' to carve new woodblocks for either new books, or even for reprints of old books. The ''gyôji'' could approve or reject the project, based on shogunate censorship guidelines, or could forward the application to shogunal magistrates for further consideration. Whether a project too closely resembled a book already being published by a competitor was also a consideration which the guild's censors took into account. If approved, the publisher finally had to submit the application (''kaihan negai'') again, along with the manuscript, this time to shogunal officials. Finally, if approved by the shogunate, the guild could register the copyright for that publication. While owning the actual physical woodblocks was the most standard form of copyright (literally, right to copy, right to print, that work), the guild's registration list also protected those who lost the physical blocks, for example, in a fire.<ref>Ikegami, 309.</ref>

Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] ([[1787]]-[[1793]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.<ref>Ikegami, 310.</ref>  

Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] ([[1787]]-[[1793]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.<ref>Ikegami, 310.</ref>