Changes

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 清 ''(Qīng / Shin)''

*''Chinese/Japanese'': 清 ''(Qīng / Shin)''

The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of Imperial China. Ruled by [[Manchu]] emperors, it began with the fall of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in [[1644]], and ended with the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in [[1911]]. As such, it is easily seen as both the last period of "traditional" China, and as containing events and developments crucial to understanding modern China.

The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of Imperial China. A period when [[China proper]] was incorporated into the broader [[Manchu]] empire, it began with the formal establishment of the Qing in [[1636]] and the fall of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in [[1644]], and ended with the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in [[1911]]. As such, the Qing is easily seen as both the last period of "traditional" China, and as containing events and developments crucial to understanding modern China.

The Qing period saw China at its greatest territorial extent, covering roughly 4.3 million square miles towards the end of the period, down from an even greater height in the 1790s, and still 606,000 square miles larger than the PRC today.<ref name=significance>Ping-Ti Ho, "The Significance of the Ch'ing Period in Chinese History," ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 26:2 (1967), 189-195.</ref> It was in the Qing period that [[Tibet]], [[Taiwan]], East Turkestan ([[Xinjiang]]), [[Manchuria]], and [[Mongolia]] were first incorporated into the Chinese empire.<ref>With the exception of the incorporation of China into the [[Mongol Empire]] during the [[Yuan Dynasty]].</ref>

The Qing period saw a China-centered empire at its greatest territorial extent in history (with the exception of [[Yuan Dynasty]] China's incorporation into the [[Mongol Empire]]). The Qing Empire covered roughly 4.3 million square miles towards the end of the period, down from an even greater height in the 1790s, and still 606,000 square miles larger than the territory of the People's Republic of China today.<ref name=significance>Ping-Ti Ho, "The Significance of the Ch'ing Period in Chinese History," ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 26:2 (1967), 189-195.</ref> It was in the Qing period that [[Tibet]], [[Taiwan]], East Turkestan ([[Xinjiang]]), [[Manchuria]], and [[Mongolia]] were first incorporated into a China-centered empire.

Though not a [[Han Chinese]] dynasty like the Ming which preceded it, due to its time, interactions with the West, and the overwhelming proportion of Qing period buildings, documents, and objects which have survived compared to those from earlier periods, it is the Qing which, perhaps, has most influenced or constituted the image of Imperial China, and of traditional Chinese culture; to name just a few examples of this phenomenon, men wearing their hair in [[queues]], and men and women both wearing robes or dresses with off-center clasps (e.g. the ''cheongsam'' or ''qipao'', commonly known in the West simply as a "Chinese dress") both derive from Manchu culture, and not from Ming or earlier "native" Chinese traditions.

Though not a [[Han Chinese]] dynasty like the Ming which preceded it, due to its time, interactions with the West, and the overwhelming proportion of Qing period buildings, documents, and objects which have survived compared to those from earlier periods, it is the Qing which, perhaps, has most influenced or constituted the image of Imperial China, and of traditional Chinese culture; to name just a few examples of this phenomenon, men wearing their hair in [[queues]], and men and women both wearing robes or dresses with off-center clasps (e.g. the ''cheongsam'' or ''qipao'', commonly known in the West simply as a "Chinese dress") both derive from Manchu culture, and not from Ming or earlier "native" Chinese traditions. The standard historiographical understanding or description of the Qing Dynasty for nearly the entire 20th century was grounded in the idea of Manchu "Sinicization" - that is, the adoption of Chinese customs and cultural attitudes by the Manchus - as the chief source of Qing power and success; this interpretation, which still has considerable currency in the official ideologies of Communist China, also has it that it was Manchu incompetence, efforts at self-preservation (i.e. putting Manchu interests ahead of those of the Chinese nation), and the resurgence of Manchu attitudes and practices, which contributed significantly to China's decline and weakness against the Western imperialist powers in the 19th century. Since the last years of the 1990s, however, in a trend known as "The New Qing History," Western scholarship has seen a shift to greater emphasis on the Manchu character of the empire, and on China as just one part of this larger empire. The Manchus acculturated and assimilated to a certain extent, but according to the New Qing History it was their sophisticated balancing of Manchu and Chinese political philosophies, practices, and discourses of legitimacy, along with ones based in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], that was the chief source of their stability and success.<ref>Waley-Cohen, Joanna. “The New Qing History.” ''Radical History Review'' 88, no. 1 (2004): 193–206.</ref>

The Ming and Qing Dynasties together comprise the period of "Late Imperial China," a term which has come to be most standard among English-language scholars of China who reject terms such as "medieval" or "early modern" as judging China against European standards of development. In China, it is common to use the term ''gǔdài'' (古代, J: ''kodai'', "ancient times") to refer to all of Chinese history up until the late Qing; however, this refers more to the current post-Communist Revolution attitude of Imperial China as "the olden times," and should not be confused for the English-language historians' term "ancient."

The Ming and Qing Dynasties together are often referred to as "Late Imperial China," a term which has come to be most standard among English-language scholars of China who reject terms such as "medieval" or "early modern" as judging China against European standards of development. Within China, it is common to use the term ''gǔdài'' (古代, J: ''kodai'', "ancient times") to refer to all of Chinese history up until the late Qing; however, this refers more to the current post-Communist Revolution attitude of Imperial China as "the olden times," and should not be confused for the English-language historians' term "ancient."

Though nearly three hundred years in length, and seeing numerous considerable economic, political, social, and cultural developments over the course of those centuries, the Qing Dynasty is perhaps most strongly associated with the circumstances surrounding its decline and fall in the 19th to early 20th centuries, from the [[Opium War]] of the 1840s and the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]] which resulted, to the [[Taiping Rebellion]] of [[1850]]-[[1864]], failed attempts at reform and modernization, the First [[Sino-Japanese War]] in [[1895]]-[[1896]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of [[1899]]-[[1901]], and the final fall of the dynasty in 1911.

Though nearly three hundred years in length, and seeing numerous considerable economic, political, social, and cultural developments over the course of those centuries, the Qing Dynasty is perhaps most strongly associated with the circumstances surrounding its decline and fall in the 19th to early 20th centuries, from the [[Opium War]] of the 1840s and the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]] which resulted, to the [[Taiping Rebellion]] of [[1850]]-[[1864]], failed attempts at reform and modernization, the First [[Sino-Japanese War]] in [[1895]]-[[1896]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of [[1899]]-[[1901]], and the final fall of the dynasty in 1911.

The Qing Dynasty has its origins in [[1616]], when [[Nurhachi]], a steppes warlord based to the northeast of China, declared the establishment of the Later Jin Dynasty, a reference to the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty]] which conquered the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] in [[1127]]. The Manchus took [[Mukden]] (Shenyang) in [[1625]], and much of Inner Mongolia by [[1632]].<ref>Spence 24.</ref> They then established in [[1634]] a system of civil exams in Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese languages, based on the Ming Dynasty model of [[Chinese imperial examinations]]. Two years later, in [[1636]], the Manchus formally declared the renaming of the Later Jin as the Qing Dynasty, establishing [[Mukden]] as the formal capital. The Manchus invaded [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] that same year, and secured a treaty the following year reestablishing [[Korean tribute missions to China|Korean tributary obligations]] to the Chinese Court. Captured and surrendered Chinese served as advisors to the Manchus even in these earliest stages, both politically and militarily, as well as assimilating into Manchu society as artisans, soldiers, and farmers.<ref name=spence34>Spence, 3-4.</ref>

The Qing Dynasty has its origins in [[1616]], when [[Nurhachi]], a steppes warlord based to the northeast of China, declared the establishment of the Later Jin Dynasty, a reference to the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty]] which conquered the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] in [[1127]]. The Manchus took [[Mukden]] (Shenyang) in [[1625]], and much of Inner Mongolia by [[1632]].<ref>Spence 24.</ref> They then established in [[1634]] a system of civil exams in Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese languages, based on the Ming Dynasty model of [[Chinese imperial examinations]]. Two years later, in [[1636]], the Manchus formally declared the renaming of the Later Jin as the Qing Dynasty, establishing [[Mukden]] as the formal capital. The Manchus invaded [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] that same year, and secured a treaty the following year reestablishing [[Korean tribute missions to China|Korean tributary obligations]] to the Chinese Court. Captured and surrendered Chinese served as advisors to the Manchus even in these earliest stages, both politically and militarily, as well as assimilating into Manchu society as artisans, soldiers, and farmers.<ref name=spence34>Spence, 3-4.</ref>

Beijing fell to the Manchus in [[1644]]. The Chinese rebel leader [[Li Zicheng]] took Beijing in that year, leading to the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] hanging himself two days later. Hearing of this, the commander of the Ming armies in the northeast, [[Wu Sangui]], who had been holding the Shanhaiguan pass against Manchu expansion, enlisted the Manchus' aid against Li Zicheng. Li left Beijing on June 4, 1644, one day after claiming imperial status, and two days later, Manchu forces led by [[Dorgon]], younger brother of [[Hong Taiji|the previous khan]], swept into the city with the aid of Wu Sangui, and placed Dorgon's nephew on the throne, declaring him the [[Shunzhi Emperor]]. This marks the formal fall of the Ming Dynasty, and the beginning of the Manchu/Qing claim to be the legitimate ruling imperial dynasty of China.<ref name=spence33>Spence, 33.</ref> [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese merchants]] informed [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] authorities in [[Nagasaki]] before the year was out; their requests for Japanese aid against the Manchu invaders come to naught. Following the fall of the Ming, many Chinese fled elsewhere in the region, or else continued to fight. The Manchus, labeling themselves not as conquerors but as avengers of the Chonzhen Emperor, invited into China by a rightful representative of the Ming (Wu Sangui), destroyed the last of Li Zicheng's rebellion, and hunted down hundreds of claimants to the Ming throne, securing their control of mainland China by [[1661]].<ref name=spence33/>

Beijing fell to the Manchus in [[1644]]. The Chinese rebel leader [[Li Zicheng]] took Beijing in that year, leading to the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] hanging himself two days later. Hearing of this, the commander of the Ming armies in the northeast, [[Wu Sangui]], who had been holding the Shanhaiguan pass against Manchu expansion, enlisted the Manchus' aid against Li Zicheng. Li left Beijing on June 4, 1644, one day after claiming imperial status, and two days later, Manchu forces led by [[Dorgon]], younger brother of [[Hong Taiji|the previous khan]], swept into the city with the aid of Wu Sangui, and placed Dorgon's nephew on the throne, declaring him the [[Shunzhi Emperor]]. This marks the formal fall of the Ming Dynasty, and the beginning of the Manchu/Qing claim to be the legitimate ruling imperial dynasty of China.<ref name=spence33>Spence, 33.</ref> [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese merchants]] informed [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] authorities in [[Nagasaki]] before the year was out; their requests for Japanese aid against the Manchu invaders come to naught. Following the fall of the Ming, many Chinese fled elsewhere in the region, or else continued to fight. The Manchus, labeling themselves not as conquerors but as avengers of the Chonzhen Emperor, invited into China by a rightful representative of the Ming (Wu Sangui), destroyed the last of Li Zicheng's rebellion, and hunted down hundreds of claimants to the Ming throne, securing their control of mainland China by [[1661]].<ref name=spence33/>

[[File:Ryukyu-qing-seal.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The royal seal of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] during the Qing Dynasty, showing Chinese (琉球國王之印) in [[seal script]] on the right, and an inscription in the [[Manchu language]] on the left.]]

[[File:Ryukyu-qing-seal.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The royal seal of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] during the Qing Dynasty, showing Chinese (琉球國王之印) in [[seal script]] on the right, and an inscription in the [[Manchu language]] on the left.]]

While the Manchu elite absolutely "Sinicized" to a great extent, inserting itself into Chinese systems of governance rather than overthrowing them, and otherwise adopting a great many aspects of Chinese culture, they at the same time made great efforts to maintain their martial, equestrian, steppe culture. The Court employed the Manchu language alongside Chinese in most if not all official documents, and powerfully promoted the language otherwise, and maintained complexes of yurts, in the manner of the khans of the steppes, alongside the Chinese-style wooden buildings of the [[Forbidden City|Imperial Palace]]. In addition, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. [[1735]]-[[1796]]) developed strong ties with the [[Dalai Lama]], and built up [[Chengde]] as a religious center of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], a form of Buddhism which had been embraced by the Mongols and Manchus, and which is quite different from Chinese Buddhism in fundamental ways.

While the Manchu elite absolutely adopted Chinese practices, Confucian political philosophy, and government structures, to a great extent, inserting itself into Chinese systems of governance rather than overthrowing them, they at the same time made great efforts to maintain their martial, equestrian, steppe culture. The Court employed the Manchu language alongside Chinese in most if not all official documents, and powerfully promoted the language otherwise, and maintained complexes of yurts, in the manner of the khans of the steppes, alongside the Chinese-style wooden buildings of the [[Forbidden City|Imperial Palace]]. In addition, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. [[1735]]-[[1796]]) developed strong ties with the [[Dalai Lama]], and built up [[Chengde]] as a religious center of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], a form of Buddhism which had been embraced by the Mongols and Manchus, and which is quite different from Chinese Buddhism in fundamental ways.

==Consolidation==

==Consolidation==