Changes

Russian traders and trappers began encroaching further upon Manchu and Chinese territory in the Amur River region in the 1660s, and the [[Kangxi Emperor]] (r. [[1661]]-[[1722]]) responded by establishing military colonies and driving the Russians away. These tensions were resolved to an extent by the [[1689]] [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], negotiated via [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] translators, which permitted Russian traders to travel through the territory and all the way to Beijing, while forbidding Russian governmental intervention, settlement, or other more permanent activities in Manchuria.  

Russian traders and trappers began encroaching further upon Manchu and Chinese territory in the Amur River region in the 1660s, and the [[Kangxi Emperor]] (r. [[1661]]-[[1722]]) responded by establishing military colonies and driving the Russians away. These tensions were resolved to an extent by the [[1689]] [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], negotiated via [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] translators, which permitted Russian traders to travel through the territory and all the way to Beijing, while forbidding Russian governmental intervention, settlement, or other more permanent activities in Manchuria.  

Following a series of successful conquests in which the Qing acquired millions of square miles of new territories in the west, the [[Treaty of Kiakhta]] in [[1727]] similarly arranged for border agreements and trade arrangements between China and Russia in this more western region, where the Qing vied not only with Russia, but also with Tibet and the western Mongols. Outer Mongolia fell to Qing forces in [[1697]], Zungharia (to the west of Mongolia) in [[1757]], and East Turkestan (incl. [[Uighur]] lands and the city of [[Kashgar]]) in [[1759]], with Tibet becoming a protectorate in [[1751]].<ref name=tignor502/> The Qing consolidated a number of these areas into a "new territory" (Xinjiang) in [[1768]]. Further border disputes between China and Russia over areas of Xinjiang would be addressed by a Treaty of St. Petersburg in [[1881]]. Some of these lands had not been controlled by China since the [[Tang Dynasty]], while others had never previously come under Chinese control. Nevertheless, all of Xinjiang and Tibet (invaded in the 1720s) are today often claimed by Chinese as integral parts of historical/traditional China.

Following a series of successful conquests in which the Qing acquired millions of square miles of new territories in the west, the [[Treaty of Kiakhta]] in [[1727]] similarly arranged for border agreements and trade arrangements between China and Russia in this more western region, where the Qing vied not only with Russia, but also with Tibet and the western Mongols. Outer Mongolia fell to Qing forces in [[1697]], [[Zunghars|Zungharia]] (to the west of Mongolia) in [[1757]], and East Turkestan (incl. [[Uighur]] lands and the city of [[Kashgar]]) in [[1759]], with Tibet becoming a protectorate in [[1751]].<ref name=tignor502/> The Qing consolidated a number of these areas into a "new territory" (Xinjiang) in [[1768]]. Further border disputes between China and Russia over areas of Xinjiang would be addressed by a Treaty of St. Petersburg in [[1881]]. Some of these lands had not been controlled by China since the [[Tang Dynasty]], while others had never previously come under Chinese control. Nevertheless, all of Xinjiang and Tibet (invaded in the 1720s) are today often claimed by Chinese as integral parts of historical/traditional China.

The Qing administered these western territories loosely for a time, allowing local or native administrative structures to remain in place. Only in the late 19th century did the Court first decide to integrate these regions more fully into "China proper."

The Qing administered these western territories loosely for a time, allowing local or native administrative structures to remain in place. Only in the late 19th century did the Court first decide to integrate these regions more fully into "China proper."

Siam's final tribute mission to China took place in [[1853]].

Siam's final tribute mission to China took place in [[1853]].

The Taiping Rebellion ended in 1864, and the Imperial Court set in motion the [[Tongzhi Restoration]], a series of reforms aimed at slowing or reversing the dynasty's decline. While the expansion of foreign presence and influence in China at this time was widely seen in a negative light, the end of the Taiping Rebellion brought at least a respite from the war and chaos of previous decades, and is said to have been encouraging enough in that alone to warrant some calling the period a "revival" or "restoration."<ref>Wm. Theodore de Bary and Wing-sit Chan, ''Sources of Chinese Tradition'', vol 2, Columbia University Press (1964), 43.</ref>

The Taiping Rebellion ended in 1864, and the Imperial Court set in motion the [[Tongzhi Restoration]], a series of reforms aimed at slowing or reversing the dynasty's decline. While the expansion of foreign presence and influence in China at this time was widely seen in a negative light, the end of the Taiping Rebellion brought at least a respite from the war and chaos of previous decades, and is said to have been encouraging enough in that alone to warrant some calling the period a "revival" or "restoration." While China did not yet at this time set itself on the course towards industrialization, the economy was strengthened and expanded by a variety of agricultural policies, land reclamation projects, tax reforms, improvements in local administration, and so forth. Even among those who did advocate for an adoption of Western technologies (especially in military applications), the focus was on a restoration of virtuous government as conceived traditionally, according to Confucian ideals of the upright and virtuous gentleman scholar administrator.<ref>Wm. Theodore de Bary and Wing-sit Chan, ''Sources of Chinese Tradition'', vol 2, Columbia University Press (1964), 43-44.</ref>

Japan's emergence into the world of modern nation-states began to have significant impacts on China's foreign relations as early as the 1870s. The [[1876]] [[Treaty of Ganghwa]], concluded between [[Meiji period]] Japan and [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, acknowledged Korea as an independent nation-state, creating difficulties for China, which still saw Korea as a tributary state. Disputes between China and Japan over claims to Ryûkyû and Taiwan lasted throughout much of the 1870s, finally culminating in the Japanese [[Ryukyu Shobun|abolition of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexation of its territory in [[1879]]. Japan would then gain control of Taiwan in [[1895]], in the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] which ended the Sino-Japanese War. In addition to Taiwan, the Japanese exacted other considerable indemnities from the Chinese; Japan also gained control of the [[Liaodong peninsula]] in northeastern China, though Japan was forced to return the peninsula after Russia, France, and Germany objected (an incident known as the [[Triple Intervention]]). China was also obligated to pay sizable monetary reparations to the Japanese government.

Japan's emergence into the world of modern nation-states began to have significant impacts on China's foreign relations as early as the 1870s. The [[1876]] [[Treaty of Ganghwa]], concluded between [[Meiji period]] Japan and [[Joseon Dynasty]] Korea, acknowledged Korea as an independent nation-state, creating difficulties for China, which still saw Korea as a tributary state. Disputes between China and Japan over claims to Ryûkyû and Taiwan lasted throughout much of the 1870s, finally culminating in the Japanese [[Ryukyu Shobun|abolition of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexation of its territory in [[1879]]. Japan would then gain control of Taiwan in [[1895]], in the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] which ended the Sino-Japanese War. In addition to Taiwan, the Japanese exacted other considerable indemnities from the Chinese; Japan also gained control of the [[Liaodong peninsula]] in northeastern China, though Japan was forced to return the peninsula after Russia, France, and Germany objected (an incident known as the [[Triple Intervention]]). China was also obligated to pay sizable monetary reparations to the Japanese government.