Changes

Though nearly three hundred years in length, and seeing numerous considerable economic, political, social, and cultural developments over the course of those centuries, the Qing Dynasty is perhaps most strongly associated with the circumstances surrounding its decline and fall in the 19th to early 20th centuries, from the [[Opium War]] of the 1840s and the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]] which resulted, to the [[Taiping Rebellion]] of [[1850]]-[[1864]], failed attempts at reform and modernization, the First [[Sino-Japanese War]] in [[1895]]-[[1896]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of [[1899]]-[[1901]], and the final fall of the dynasty in 1911.

Though nearly three hundred years in length, and seeing numerous considerable economic, political, social, and cultural developments over the course of those centuries, the Qing Dynasty is perhaps most strongly associated with the circumstances surrounding its decline and fall in the 19th to early 20th centuries, from the [[Opium War]] of the 1840s and the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]] which resulted, to the [[Taiping Rebellion]] of [[1850]]-[[1864]], failed attempts at reform and modernization, the First [[Sino-Japanese War]] in [[1895]]-[[1896]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of [[1899]]-[[1901]], and the final fall of the dynasty in 1911.

==Manchu Takeover==

==Manchu Takeover & Establishment of Qing Institutions==

The Qing Dynasty has its origins in [[1616]], when [[Nurhachi]], a steppes warlord based to the northeast of China, declared the establishment of the Later Jin Dynasty, a reference to the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty]] which conquered the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] in [[1127]].  

Historian [[Jonathan Spence]] attributes the success of the Manchu conquest to the possession of a well-organized military and administration, and the beginnings of a centralized bureaucracy, prior to moving against the Ming Empire.<ref>Jonathan Spence, ''The Search for Modern China'', Second Edition, W.W. Norton & Co. (1999), 3.</ref>

Nurhachi then established in [[1634]] a system of civil exams in Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese languages, based on the Ming Dynasty model of [[Chinese imperial examinations]]. Two years later, in [[1636]], he formally declared the renaming of the Later Jin as the Qing Dynasty, establishing [[Mukden]] as the formal capital. The Manchus invaded [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] that same year, and secured a treaty the following year reestablishing [[Korean tribute missions to China|Korean tributary obligations]] to the Chinese Court.

The Qing Dynasty has its origins in [[1616]], when [[Nurhachi]], a steppes warlord based to the northeast of China, declared the establishment of the Later Jin Dynasty, a reference to the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty]] which conquered the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] in [[1127]]. Nurhachi then established in [[1634]] a system of civil exams in Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese languages, based on the Ming Dynasty model of [[Chinese imperial examinations]]. Two years later, in [[1636]], he formally declared the renaming of the Later Jin as the Qing Dynasty, establishing [[Mukden]] as the formal capital. The Manchus invaded [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] that same year, and secured a treaty the following year reestablishing [[Korean tribute missions to China|Korean tributary obligations]] to the Chinese Court. Captured and surrendered Chinese served as advisors to the Manchus even in these earliest stages, both politically and militarily, as well as assimilating into Manchu society as artisans, soldiers, and farmers.<ref name=spence34>Spence, 3-4.</ref>

Beijing fell to the Manchus in [[1644]]. The Chinese rebel leader [[Li Zicheng]] took Beijing in that year, leading to the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] hanging himself two days later. Hearing of this, the commander of the Ming armies in the northeast, who had been leading the fight against Manchu expansion, enlisted the Manchus' aid against Li Zicheng. Ousting the rebel from the city, the Manchu forces then kept the city for themselves, rather than returning it to the Ming Chinese.<ref>Robert Tignor, [[Benjamin Elman]], et al, ''Worlds Together, Worlds Apart'', vol B, Fourth Edition, W.W. Norton & Co (2014), 501.</ref> This marks the formal fall of the Ming Dynasty. [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese merchants]] informed [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] authorities in [[Nagasaki]] before the year was out; their requests for Japanese aid against the Manchu invaders come to naught. Following the fall of the Ming, many Chinese fled elsewhere in the region, or else continued to fight. The remainder of mainland China fell to the Manchus by [[1659]], but many Ming loyalists fled to Taiwan and continued the fight, holding out for forty years. Led by [[Zheng Zhilong]] and his son [[Zheng Chenggong]] (aka Coxinga), they harassed Chinese shipping and coastal communities to such an extent that in [[1657]] the Qing ordered a halt to maritime and coastal activities, and that coastal residents move further inland, in a policy known as ''[[qianjie|qiānjiè]]''. Meanwhile, many in Korea, Japan, and Ryûkyû saw the Chinese center as having fallen to barbarian rule, and saw their own lands or peoples as therefore representing the only surviving outposts of Ming - or true high Chinese - culture.

Beijing fell to the Manchus in [[1644]]. The Chinese rebel leader [[Li Zicheng]] took Beijing in that year, leading to the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] hanging himself two days later. Hearing of this, the commander of the Ming armies in the northeast, who had been leading the fight against Manchu expansion, enlisted the Manchus' aid against Li Zicheng. Ousting the rebel from the city, the Manchu forces then kept the city for themselves, rather than returning it to the Ming Chinese.<ref>Robert Tignor, [[Benjamin Elman]], et al, ''Worlds Together, Worlds Apart'', vol B, Fourth Edition, W.W. Norton & Co (2014), 501.</ref> This marks the formal fall of the Ming Dynasty. [[Chinese in Nagasaki|Chinese merchants]] informed [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] authorities in [[Nagasaki]] before the year was out; their requests for Japanese aid against the Manchu invaders come to naught. Following the fall of the Ming, many Chinese fled elsewhere in the region, or else continued to fight. The remainder of mainland China fell to the Manchus by [[1659]], but many Ming loyalists fled to Taiwan and continued the fight, holding out for forty years. Led by [[Zheng Zhilong]] and his son [[Zheng Chenggong]] (aka Coxinga), they harassed Chinese shipping and coastal communities to such an extent that in [[1657]] the Qing ordered a halt to maritime and coastal activities, and that coastal residents move further inland, in a policy known as ''[[qianjie|qiānjiè]]''. Meanwhile, many in Korea, Japan, and Ryûkyû saw the Chinese center as having fallen to barbarian rule, and saw their own lands or peoples as therefore representing the only surviving outposts of Ming - or true high Chinese - culture.

The Qing brought much of the central and southern parts of China under its control, including [[Hubei province|Hubei]], [[Shaanxi province|Shaanxi]], [[Sichuan province|Sichuan]] and all the coastal provinces,  within two years of taking Beijing, and finally secured control over [[Yunnan province]], on the border with Burma and Vietnam, in [[1659]].<ref name=tignor502>Tignor, et al., 502.</ref>

The Qing brought much of the central and southern parts of China under its control, including [[Hubei province|Hubei]], [[Shaanxi province|Shaanxi]], [[Sichuan province|Sichuan]] and all the coastal provinces,  within two years of taking Beijing, and finally secured control over [[Yunnan province]], on the border with Burma and Vietnam, in [[1659]].<ref name=tignor502>Tignor, et al., 502.</ref>

The Manchus began to impose new cultural mandates upon the Chinese in [[1645]], the year after they took Beijing. All men were now required to wear their hair in long ponytails, known as queues. Though initially strongly resisted as a barbarian custom, and as wholly different from Chinese tradition, within a few generations, Han Chinese came to cherish this as part of their own customs and identity. Most if not all Chinese who emigrated to the United States (and elsewhere) in the 19th century wore such queues, as well as adhering to other Manchu-imposed cultural norms, and many found difficulty in abandoning these practices. [[Footbinding]], meanwhile, was not practiced by the Manchus (at least not initially), and in fact one Qing Emperor attempted to ban the practice, but was unsuccessful, as the custom was widely practiced and well-ingrained among the Han Chinese since the [[Song Dynasty]].<ref name=craig101/>

 

 

 

The Qing began to impose new cultural mandates upon the Chinese in [[1645]], the year after they took Beijing. All men were now required to wear their hair in long ponytails, known as queues. Though initially strongly resisted as a barbarian custom, and as wholly different from Chinese tradition, within a few generations, Han Chinese came to cherish this as part of their own customs and identity. Most if not all Chinese who emigrated to the United States (and elsewhere) in the 19th century wore such queues, as well as adhering to other Manchu-imposed cultural norms, and many found difficulty in abandoning these practices.

 

[[Footbinding]], meanwhile, was not practiced by the Manchus (at least not initially), and in fact one Qing Emperor attempted to ban the practice, but was unsuccessful, as the custom was widely practiced and well-ingrained among the Han Chinese since the [[Song Dynasty]].<ref name=craig101/>

The Qing state, and society, was divided to a certain extent along ethnic lines. Manchus, Mongols, and so-called "military" Chinese (descendants of Han Chinese allies of the Manchus, chiefly from Manchuria and northern China, from prior to the fall of the Ming) were each organized into eight "banners," and were governed and administered not by Han Chinese officials, but by their fellow bannermen. Bannermen lived in garrisons separated from the other areas of the city, served in a separate administrative hierarchy, and took a separate set of [[Chinese imperial examinations|civil examinations]] to earn those administrative posts. These exams were offered not only in classical Chinese, but alternatively in the Mongol and Manchu languages, incorporated elements of military skill or prowess, and involved somewhat lower requirements for knowledge of Confucian classics, talent at Chinese poetry, and the like, as compared to the exams taken by Han Chinese candidates. In a system not entirely unlike the dyarchy (double rule) system of civil and military governors under the [[Kamakura shogunate|Kamakura]] and [[Muromachi shogunate]]s in Japan, which might be said to have governed the [[samurai]] while leaving civil administration to the Imperial Court, the Qing Court similarly appointed two officials - one from the banners, and one Chinese scholar-bureaucrat - to a great many posts.

The Qing state, and society, was divided to a certain extent along ethnic lines. Manchus, Mongols, and so-called "military" Chinese (descendants of Han Chinese allies of the Manchus, chiefly from Manchuria and northern China, from prior to the fall of the Ming) were each organized into eight "banners," and were governed and administered not by Han Chinese officials, but by their fellow bannermen. Bannermen lived in garrisons separated from the other areas of the city, served in a separate administrative hierarchy, and took a separate set of [[Chinese imperial examinations|civil examinations]] to earn those administrative posts. These exams were offered not only in classical Chinese, but alternatively in the Mongol and Manchu languages, incorporated elements of military skill or prowess, and involved somewhat lower requirements for knowledge of Confucian classics, talent at Chinese poetry, and the like, as compared to the exams taken by Han Chinese candidates. In a system not entirely unlike the dyarchy (double rule) system of civil and military governors under the [[Kamakura shogunate|Kamakura]] and [[Muromachi shogunate]]s in Japan, which might be said to have governed the [[samurai]] while leaving civil administration to the Imperial Court, the Qing Court similarly appointed two officials - one from the banners, and one Chinese scholar-bureaucrat - to a great many posts.

While the Manchu elite absolutely "Sinicized" to a great extent, inserting itself into Chinese systems of governance rather than overthrowing them, and otherwise adopting a great many aspects of Chinese culture, they at the same time made great efforts to maintain their martial, equestrian, steppe culture. The Court employed the Manchu language alongside Chinese in most if not all official documents, and powerfully promoted the language otherwise, and maintained complexes of yurts, in the manner of the khans of the steppes, alongside the Chinese-style wooden buildings of the [[Forbidden City|Imperial Palace]]. In addition, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. [[1735]]-[[1796]]) developed strong ties with the [[Dalai Lama]], and built up [[Chengde]] as a religious center of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], a form of Buddhism which had been embraced by the Mongols and Manchus, and which is quite different from Chinese Buddhism in fundamental ways.

While the Manchu elite absolutely "Sinicized" to a great extent, inserting itself into Chinese systems of governance rather than overthrowing them, and otherwise adopting a great many aspects of Chinese culture, they at the same time made great efforts to maintain their martial, equestrian, steppe culture. The Court employed the Manchu language alongside Chinese in most if not all official documents, and powerfully promoted the language otherwise, and maintained complexes of yurts, in the manner of the khans of the steppes, alongside the Chinese-style wooden buildings of the [[Forbidden City|Imperial Palace]]. In addition, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. [[1735]]-[[1796]]) developed strong ties with the [[Dalai Lama]], and built up [[Chengde]] as a religious center of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], a form of Buddhism which had been embraced by the Mongols and Manchus, and which is quite different from Chinese Buddhism in fundamental ways.

*cultural changes - queue, etc.

*survival of the Ming / destruction of Ming loyalists

The [[Kangxi Emperor]], who reigned from [[1661]] until [[1722]], is generally credited with consolidating Qing rule over China.<ref name=spence34/> In [[1668]], he had a willow palisade built across a section of Manchuria, and banned Han Chinese from crossing into that region. Though [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories|three feudatories]] in southern China rose up in rebellion against the Qing in [[1673]], this rebellion was finally suppressed in [[1680]]. Similarly, the battle with the Ming loyalists finally came to an end in [[1684]], as Qing forces took Taiwan. This represents the first time the central Chinese "state" ever controlled the island. The Qing lifted coastal and maritime restrictions shortly afterwards.

==Demographic & Economic Expansion==

==Demographic & Economic Expansion==