Changes

The dynasty weakened considerably beginning in the 20s BCE, as the court faced numerous rebellions from without, and factional struggles, nepotism & corruption, and a succession of weak emperors within.  

The dynasty weakened considerably beginning in the 20s BCE, as the court faced numerous rebellions from without, and factional struggles, nepotism & corruption, and a succession of weak emperors within.  

Powerful regional magnates, many of them possibly descended from pre-unification kings, accumulated wealth and power, challenging the power of the imperial government. The central government collected taxes not by the individual (a head tax), but by the household, and so it was doubly in their interest to support small landowners over larger landlords who could challenge their power. Yet, most peasant households lived subsistence lives, ever on the verge of bankruptcy, and so they were difficult to support, or rely upon. When a family failed, they sold their land to a landlord, who gained wealth and power in the process. New agricultural technologies might have helped peasant families become more solvent, and more independent, but such equipment was too expensive for them, and when used by wealthier landlords, only exacerbated income disparities. Eventually, struggling with financial and political problems, the Court found itself with no choice but to turn to some of these regional magnates and wealthy landlords to appoint them to government positions, to put their financial expertise to work to help the state. They did that, to a certain extent, but at the same time shaped policy to benefit themselves, and others like them, to the detriment of the masses.<ref>Schirokauer, 65-67.</ref>

Powerful regional magnates, many of them possibly descended from pre-unification kings, accumulated wealth and power, challenging the power of the imperial government. At the height of this phenomenon, as much as 65% of agricultural land might have been included within such estates. The central government collected taxes not by the individual (a head tax), but by the household, and so it was doubly in their interest to support small landowners over larger landlords who could challenge their power. Yet, most peasant households lived subsistence lives, ever on the verge of bankruptcy, and so they were difficult to support, or rely upon. When a family failed, they sold their land to a landlord, who gained wealth and power in the process. New agricultural technologies might have helped peasant families become more solvent, and more independent, but such equipment was too expensive for them, and when used by wealthier landlords, only exacerbated income disparities. Eventually, struggling with financial and political problems, the Court found itself with no choice but to turn to some of these regional magnates and wealthy landlords to appoint them to government positions, to put their financial expertise to work to help the state. They did that, to a certain extent, but at the same time shaped policy to benefit themselves, and others like them, to the detriment of the masses.<ref>Schirokauer, 65-69.</ref>

The Imperial regent, [[Wang Mang]], eventually was named to the throne in [[8]] CE; since he was not related by blood to the Imperial family, this would technically be considered the beginning of a new dynasty, and so the rule of Wang Mang is sometimes referred to as the Xin Dynasty.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, 47.</ref> He launched numerous reforms aimed at improving society, but faced considerable popular opposition as well as natural disasters and Xiongnu invasions. His efforts to create a new dynasty from within a terribly weakened Court, and without additional military support, ultimately failed, succumbing to a rebellion in [[23]] CE. The rebels took [[Chang'an]], killed Wang Mang, and in [[25]] CE took the throne for themselves; since their leader was related by blood to the previous Imperial line, this is regarded not as a new dynasty, but as the revival of the Han, which would then go on to last an additional 200 years.

The Imperial regent, [[Wang Mang]], eventually was named to the throne in [[8]] CE; since he was not related by blood to the Imperial family, this would technically be considered the beginning of a new dynasty, and so the rule of Wang Mang is sometimes referred to as the Xin Dynasty.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, 47.</ref> He launched numerous reforms aimed at improving society, but faced considerable popular opposition as well as natural disasters and Xiongnu invasions. His efforts to create a new dynasty from within a terribly weakened Court, and without additional military support, ultimately failed, succumbing to a rebellion in [[23]] CE. The rebels took [[Chang'an]], killed Wang Mang, and in [[25]] CE took the throne for themselves; since their leader was related by blood to the previous Imperial line, this is regarded not as a new dynasty, but as the revival of the Han, which would then go on to last an additional 200 years.

The Han also managed to achieve a degree of peace, securing alliances with or victories against various steppe tribes. They formed an alliance with certain tribes in 50 CE, and sent an army across the [[Gobi Desert]] in [[89]] CE which defeated certain tribes of Xiongnu, who then fled westward, becoming the "Huns" who then threatened Europe. Han armies also expanded west in this period as far as the shores of the Caspian Sea (in [[97]] CE); coupled with certain government policies favorable to merchants, this proved a considerable boon to the Silk Road trade.

The Han also managed to achieve a degree of peace, securing alliances with or victories against various steppe tribes. They formed an alliance with certain tribes in 50 CE, and sent an army across the [[Gobi Desert]] in [[89]] CE which defeated certain tribes of Xiongnu, who then fled westward, becoming the "Huns" who then threatened Europe. Han armies also expanded west in this period as far as the shores of the Caspian Sea (in [[97]] CE); coupled with certain government policies favorable to merchants, this proved a considerable boon to the Silk Road trade.

The dynasty eventually collapsed in 220 CE, however, in the face of numerous rebellions. The realm fell into disunity, being ruled by a number of polities over the course of the roughly 350-year-long [[Six Dynasties Period]] (220-[[589]]), before being unified once again under the [[Sui Dynasty]].

The dynasty eventually collapsed in 220 CE, however, in the face of numerous rebellions, including those of the [[Yellow Turbans]] and the [[Celestial Masters Rebellion]].<ref>Schirokauer, 72.</ref> The realm fell into disunity, being ruled by a number of polities over the course of the roughly 350-year-long [[Six Dynasties Period]] (220-[[589]]), before being unified once again under the [[Sui Dynasty]].

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