Changes

The printing of religious texts in significant volume took off beginning in the 11th century, the one exception being the 8th century production of the ''Hyakumantô darani''.<ref name=smith334>Smith. p334.</ref>

The printing of religious texts in significant volume took off beginning in the 11th century, the one exception being the 8th century production of the ''Hyakumantô darani''.<ref name=smith334>Smith. p334.</ref>

In the [[Muromachi period]], non-Buddhist texts such as the [[Confucian classics]] and books of Chinese poetry began to be printed as well, sponsored chiefly by [[Zen]] temples. However, none of these enjoyed widespread circulation, and the vast majority of literary and other non-religious texts continued to circulate, to the small extent that they did, through hand-copied manuscript copies.<ref>Ikegami, 291-292.</ref>

In the [[Muromachi period]], non-Buddhist texts such as the [[Confucian classics]] and books of Chinese poetry began to be printed as well, sponsored chiefly by [[Zen]] temples. However, none of these enjoyed widespread circulation, and the vast majority of literary and other non-religious texts continued to circulate, to the small extent that they did, through hand-copied manuscript copies.<ref>Eiko Ikegami, ''Bonds of Civility'', Cambridge University Press (2005), 291-292.</ref>

==Tokugawa Period==

==Tokugawa Period==

Publishers owned the rights to reproduce works for which they owned the woodblocks. It was this possession of the woodblocks, known as ''zôhan'' (蔵版), whether physically or simply in name, by contract, that served as the rough equivalent to modern concepts of copyright, which were not introduced until the Meiji period. The idea of "intellectual property" as enforced today was not legally protected in any way at that time, and "artists," or, rather, illustrators hired by or otherwise working with publishers, had very little rights over reproduction of their works. In fact, publishers frequently repackaged illustrators' works, republishing them under new titles, sometimes mixed with illustrations from other publications, and sometimes cropped or otherwise altered; publishers also frequently sold woodblocks (or the ''zôhan'' rights to them) to other publishers, who might then reissue new editions.

Publishers owned the rights to reproduce works for which they owned the woodblocks. It was this possession of the woodblocks, known as ''zôhan'' (蔵版), whether physically or simply in name, by contract, that served as the rough equivalent to modern concepts of copyright, which were not introduced until the Meiji period. The idea of "intellectual property" as enforced today was not legally protected in any way at that time, and "artists," or, rather, illustrators hired by or otherwise working with publishers, had very little rights over reproduction of their works. In fact, publishers frequently repackaged illustrators' works, republishing them under new titles, sometimes mixed with illustrations from other publications, and sometimes cropped or otherwise altered; publishers also frequently sold woodblocks (or the ''zôhan'' rights to them) to other publishers, who might then reissue new editions.

The earliest publishing houses emerged in Kyoto around 1600; simply called ''hon'ya'' (bookstores) they engaged in both printing/publishing and retail.<ref name=ikegami286>Eiko Ikegami, ''Bonds of Civility'', Cambridge University Press (2005), 286.</ref> By around 1626, woodblock printing had become definitively the predominant form, and use of moveable type had fallen away.<ref name=smith334/> Publishing came to [[Osaka]] in the 1660s, and to Edo relatively late by comparison, but grew rapidly over the course of the 17th century, and by the year 1800 dramatically eclipsed the [[Kamigata|Kyoto-Osaka]] (combined) publishing industry. The first half of the 19th century saw the continued growth of publishing in the three major cities, as well as the emergence of commercial publishing operations in a number of provincial centers.<ref name=smith334/> The three major cities combined accounted for roughly 89% of publishing production; among the secondary or provincial centers of production, Nagoya was the most active, with roughly 104 independent publishers operating at one point or another (not simultaneously) in the Edo period. Other major publishing centers included Nagasaki, Wakayama, Ise, Hiroshima, Sendai, and Kanazawa.<ref>Over the course of the entire Edo period, it has been estimated there were 1,733 publishing firms in Kyoto, 1,652 in Edo, 1,253 in Osaka, 104 in Nagoya, 49 in Ise, 24 in Wakayama, 27 in Sendai, 24 in Kanazawa, 21 in Nagasaki, and 312 elsewhere. Smith. p342, citing Inoue Takaaki. ''Kinsei shorin hanmoto sôran'' 近世書林版元総覧. ''Nihon shoshigaku taikei 14'' 日本書誌学体系１４. Seishôdô Shoten, 1981. p6.</ref>

The earliest publishing houses emerged in Kyoto around 1600; simply called ''hon'ya'' (bookstores) they engaged in both printing/publishing and retail.<ref name=ikegami286>Ikegami, 286.</ref> By around 1626, commercial publishing was more fully underway, woodblock printing had become definitively the predominant form, and use of moveable type had fallen away.<ref name=smith334/><ref name=ikegami292/> Publishing came to [[Osaka]] in the 1660s, and to Edo relatively late by comparison, but grew rapidly over the course of the 17th century, and by the year 1800 dramatically eclipsed the [[Kamigata|Kyoto-Osaka]] (combined) publishing industry. The first half of the 19th century saw the continued growth of publishing in the three major cities, as well as the emergence of commercial publishing operations in a number of provincial centers.<ref name=smith334/> The three major cities combined accounted for roughly 89% of publishing production; among the secondary or provincial centers of production, Nagoya was the most active, with roughly 104 independent publishers operating at one point or another (not simultaneously) in the Edo period. Other major publishing centers included Nagasaki, Wakayama, Ise, Hiroshima, Sendai, and Kanazawa.<ref>Over the course of the entire Edo period, it has been estimated there were 1,733 publishing firms in Kyoto, 1,652 in Edo, 1,253 in Osaka, 104 in Nagoya, 49 in Ise, 24 in Wakayama, 27 in Sendai, 24 in Kanazawa, 21 in Nagasaki, and 312 elsewhere. Smith. p342, citing Inoue Takaaki. ''Kinsei shorin hanmoto sôran'' 近世書林版元総覧. ''Nihon shoshigaku taikei 14'' 日本書誌学体系１４. Seishôdô Shoten, 1981. p6.</ref>

The earliest trade catalog, ''wakan shoseki mokuroku'' ("Catalog of Chinese and Japanese Books in Print"), published in [[1666]], listed nearly 2,600 titles; this number leapt to over 3,800 only four years later, to nearly 6,000 in 1685, and to over 7,000 in 1692.<ref name=ikegami286/> Over the course of the entire period, according to one scholar, roughly 100,000 titles were published - 195,000 if we include renamed later editions of older titles; the same source estimates that roughly 236 new titles were published each year, on average, between 1600 and 1730, and approximately 510 new titles each year, on average, between 1730 and 1868.<ref>Smith. p335.</ref> Determining the average or typical print run is difficult, but some scholars estimate that it was not uncommon for books to be produced in first edition print runs of 1000-2000 copies.<ref>Smith. p343.</ref> Books were sold at retail storefronts (''hon'ya''), but also by ''[[kashihonya]]'', traveling booklenders who journeyed into the countryside, and to most of the [[provinces]], making books available far outside of just the cities; furthermore, samurai on ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journeys to and from Edo also carried books to their home provinces. This circulation or distribution of published materials throughout the realm was a crucial element in the creation of an archipelago-wide popular discourse, popular culture, and proto-national conception of "Japan" and of "Japanese" identity.

The earliest trade catalog, ''wakan shoseki mokuroku'' ("Catalog of Chinese and Japanese Books in Print"), published in [[1666]], listed nearly 2,600 titles; this number leapt to over 3,800 only four years later, to nearly 6,000 in 1685, and to over 7,000 in 1692.<ref name=ikegami286/> Over the course of the entire period, according to one scholar, roughly 100,000 titles were published - 195,000 if we include renamed later editions of older titles; the same source estimates that roughly 236 new titles were published each year, on average, between 1600 and 1730, and approximately 510 new titles each year, on average, between 1730 and 1868.<ref>Smith. p335.</ref> Determining the average or typical print run is difficult, but some scholars estimate that it was not uncommon for books to be produced in first edition print runs of 1000-2000 copies.<ref>Smith. p343.</ref> Books were sold at retail storefronts (''hon'ya''), but also by ''[[kashihonya]]'', traveling booklenders who journeyed into the countryside, and to most of the [[provinces]], making books available far outside of just the cities; furthermore, samurai on ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journeys to and from Edo also carried books to their home provinces. This circulation or distribution of published materials throughout the realm was a crucial element in the creation of an archipelago-wide popular discourse, popular culture, and proto-national conception of "Japan" and of "Japanese" identity.