Changes

Samurai armies under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] [[Korean Invasions|invaded Korea]] in the 1590s, and though they ultimately were unsuccessful and withdrew entirely from the peninsula, the damage they caused continues to be remembered today, and associated by some with the much later actions by a very different Japanese government in very different times and circumstances.

Samurai armies under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] [[Korean Invasions|invaded Korea]] in the 1590s, and though they ultimately were unsuccessful and withdrew entirely from the peninsula, the damage they caused continues to be remembered today, and associated by some with the much later actions by a very different Japanese government in very different times and circumstances.

Though formal friendly relations between the [[Joseon Dynasty]] and [[Tokugawa shogunate]] were eventually established, and maintained throughout most of the [[Edo period]], there were some Japanese intellectuals who advocated invading Korea as early as the early to mid-19th century. Citing the decline of [[Qing Dynasty]] China (especially after the [[Opium War]] of [[1840]]-[[1842]]) and the threat of Russian encroachment (especially beginning around 1800), they argued for the invasion of Korea in order to help ensure the security of Japanese land, waters, and interests.

Though formal friendly relations between the [[Joseon Dynasty]] and [[Tokugawa shogunate]] were eventually established, and maintained throughout most of the [[Edo period]], there were some Japanese intellectuals who advocated invading Korea as early as the early to mid-19th century. Citing the decline of [[Qing Dynasty]] China (especially after the [[Opium War]] of [[1840]]-[[1842]]) and the threat of Russian encroachment (especially beginning around 1800), they argued for the invasion of Korea in order to help ensure the security of Japanese land, waters, and interests.  

This discourse amplified in the [[Bakumatsu]] and very early [[Meiji period]]s, eventually culminating in the [[1873]] [[Seikanron]], a major debate which split the leaders of the [[Meiji government]]; while some advocated invading Korea, for a variety of reasons including a desire to protect Japanese interests in Korea, and the feeling of a need, on the basis of national security, to ensure Korea not fall into the hands of Russia or any other Western power, others disagreed vehemently. In the end, the decision was made not to launch any such military expedition, and [[Saigo Takamori|Saigô Takamori]], among others, famously resigned from government, returning to his native [[Kagoshima prefecture]], where he would several years later lead [[Satsuma Rebellion|a major rebellion]] against the government.

This discourse continued into the [[Bakumatsu]] and [[Meiji period]]s, as many Japanese policymakers expressed concerns about Chinese and Russian influence in Korea, and sought to protect Korea's independence from those and other powers, in order to keep Korea available for trade and relations with Japan. This would remain a prominent theme in Japanese attitudes and actions towards Korea well into the 20th century.

 

Debates over how to pursue such a policy culminated in the [[1873]] [[Seikanron]], a major debate which split the leaders of the [[Meiji government]]; while some advocated invading Korea, for a variety of reasons including a desire to protect Japanese interests in Korea, and the feeling of a need, on the basis of national security, to ensure Korea not fall into the hands of Russia or any other Western power, others disagreed vehemently. In the end, the decision was made not to launch any such military expedition, and [[Saigo Takamori|Saigô Takamori]], among others, famously resigned from government, returning to his native [[Kagoshima prefecture]], where he would several years later lead [[Satsuma Rebellion|a major rebellion]] against the government.

The Japanese managed to secure modern diplomatic relations with Korea in the [[1876]] [[Treaty of Ganghwa]], which stipulated Korea's identity as an independent nation, free to engage in its own foreign affairs, and which opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. This was all done without notifying or negotiating with Beijing, which had still seen Joseon Korea as a [[tribute|tributary]] state. This also placed the final nail in the coffin, so to speak, of the traditional relationship between the Korean Court and the [[So clan|Sô clan]] of [[Tsushima han]], following the abolition of both the samurai class and [[abolition of the han|of the ''han'' domains]] in the preceding years. A formal Japanese embassy in the modern mode was established in Seoul in [[1880]].

The Japanese managed to secure modern diplomatic relations with Korea in the [[1876]] [[Treaty of Ganghwa]], which stipulated Korea's identity as an independent nation, free to engage in its own foreign affairs, and which opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. This was all done without notifying or negotiating with Beijing, which had still seen Joseon Korea as a [[tribute|tributary]] state. This also placed the final nail in the coffin, so to speak, of the traditional relationship between the Korean Court and the [[So clan|Sô clan]] of [[Tsushima han]], following the abolition of both the samurai class and [[abolition of the han|of the ''han'' domains]] in the preceding years. A formal Japanese embassy in the modern mode was established in Seoul in [[1880]].

In the 1880s, a number of Japanese traveled to Korea in a variety of capacities, some as independent adventurers and the like, others as filibusters or activists, and others in more official capacities as diplomats or government officials. A great many of them, across all of these categories, aimed in one way or another to persuade Korea to distance itself from China, to pursue modernization reforms, and/or to allow for some considerable degree of Japanese involvement in Korean governance. None of these attempts were ultimately successful, but some spurred considerable Korean reaction, and in a few cases direct violence against Japanese individuals. Both China and Japan, on a number of occasions over the course of the decade, sent small military missions into Korea to suppress rebellions and uprisings, and after Japanese ambassador to Korea [[Takezoe Shinichiro|Takezoe Shin'ichirô]] was injured, and a number of Japanese killed, by Korean activists, [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs|Foreign Minister]] [[Inoue Kaoru]] led a mission to Seoul in [[1884]] to discuss addressing these incidents. Tensions between China and Japan over influence in Korea nearly led to war during this decade, but negotiations between [[Mori Arinori]] and [[Li Hongzhang]] ultimately avoided (or delayed) violent conflict; both countries then agreed to inform the other if they were to send troops to Korea again.

In the 1880s, a number of Japanese traveled to Korea in a variety of capacities, some as independent adventurers and the like, others as filibusters or activists, and others in more official capacities as diplomats or government officials. A great many of them, across all of these categories, aimed in one way or another to persuade Korea to distance itself from China, to pursue modernization reforms, and/or to allow for some considerable degree of Japanese involvement in Korean governance. Some of the more official visits involved attempts to secure for Japan concessions, such as the opening of ports, the establishment of a foreign settlement, and exclusive rights to construct and maintain [[telegraph]] lines and railroads. None of these attempts were ultimately successful, some being blocked by representatives of the Western powers. In [[1895]], for example, representatives from the US, UK, Germany, and Russia agreed that Japan should not be given exclusive rights to railroad or telegraph concessions. The Koreans then granted such concessions to Westerners, as part of attempts to "play barbarians against barbarians," using the Westerners to block out the Japanese.<ref>[[Peter Duus]], "Economic Dimensions of Meiji Imperialism," in Peattie and Myers (eds.), ''The Japanese Colonial Empire'', 1895-1945, Princeton University Press (1984), 139.</ref>

 

Some of these efforts also spurred considerable Korean resistance or opposition, and in a few cases direct violence against Japanese individuals. Both China and Japan, on a number of occasions over the course of the decade, sent small military missions into Korea to suppress rebellions and uprisings, and after Japanese ambassador to Korea [[Takezoe Shinichiro|Takezoe Shin'ichirô]] was injured, and a number of Japanese killed, by Korean activists, [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs|Foreign Minister]] [[Inoue Kaoru]] led a mission to Seoul in [[1884]] to discuss addressing these incidents. Tensions between China and Japan over influence in Korea nearly led to war during this decade, but negotiations between [[Mori Arinori]] and [[Li Hongzhang]] ultimately avoided (or delayed) violent conflict; both countries then agreed to inform the other if they were to send troops to Korea again.

However, in [[1894]], the Korean king requested Chinese and Japanese aid in suppressing the [[Tonghak Rebellion]], and after the rebellion was ended, the Japanese troops remained, looting the royal palace and capturing the king and queen. Chinese forces responded, and the [[Sino-Japanese War]] broke out.

However, in [[1894]], the Korean king requested Chinese and Japanese aid in suppressing the [[Tonghak Rebellion]], and after the rebellion was ended, the Japanese troops remained, looting the royal palace and capturing the king and queen. Chinese forces responded, and the [[Sino-Japanese War]] broke out.

The Sino-Japanese War ended the following year with the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]], which gave Japan control of [[Taiwan]], among other spoils. Japanese and Russian influence in Korea continued to expand over the period from [[1898]] to [[1904]], eventually resulting in the outbreak of another full-on war. The [[Russo-Japanese War]], like the Sino-Japanese War before it, was fought largely in and around, and over control of, Korea. It ended in [[1905]] with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], and was shortly followed by a separate treaty with Korea which granted Japan control over the Korean peninsula as a "protectorate."

The Sino-Japanese War ended the following year with the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]], which gave Japan control of [[Taiwan]], among other spoils. Japanese and Russian influence in Korea continued to expand over the period from [[1898]] to [[1904]], eventually resulting in the outbreak of another full-on war. The [[Russo-Japanese War]], like the Sino-Japanese War before it, was fought largely in and around, and over control of, Korea. It ended in [[1905]] with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], and was shortly followed by a separate treaty with Korea which granted Japan control over the Korean peninsula as a "protectorate." This came as the result of a May 31, 1904 cabinet decision that in order to ensure Korea's independence and territorial security, it needed to be placed under Japan's protection; the Korean royal family, court, and governing structures were left relatively intact and at least nominally independent, while Japan took over responsibility for Korea's foreign relations, defense, and finances.<ref>Duus, 140.</ref>

==Protectorate (1905-1910)==

==Protectorate (1905-1910)==

[[Ito Hirobumi|Itô Hirobumi]], who had some years before ended his term as Japan's first modern [[prime minister]], became the first [[Governor-General of Korea|Resident General]] in Korea. Historian [[Mark Peattie]] describes Itô as having "attempted a series of well-intentioned reforms while at the same time systematically liquidating Korean political institutions and substituting Japanese ones."<ref name=peattie1718/>

[[Ito Hirobumi|Itô Hirobumi]], who had some years before ended his term as Japan's first modern [[prime minister]], became the first [[Governor-General of Korea|Resident General]] in Korea. Historian [[Mark Peattie]] describes Itô as having "attempted a series of well-intentioned reforms while at the same time systematically liquidating Korean political institutions and substituting Japanese ones."<ref name=peattie1718/>

The first objective of Japanese rule in Korea was to consolidate power and attempt to eliminate the ability of the people to mount effective resistance. Among the steps taken towards this objective were the establishment of Japanese in advisory posts within the Korean army, followed by the downsizing of the army and its eventual dismantling in [[1907]], at which time the best Korean officers were then incorporated into the Japanese army. Peattie compares the resulting mutinies amongst Korean soldiers to the [[1877]] [[Satsuma Rebellion]], in which samurai rose up against the destruction of their elite warrior class; both were powerfully and successfully suppressed by the Imperial Japanese Army.

The first objective of Japanese rule in Korea was to consolidate power and attempt to eliminate the ability of the people to mount effective resistance. Among the steps taken towards this objective were the establishment of Japanese in advisory posts within the Korean army, followed by the downsizing of the army and its eventual dismantling in [[1907]], at which time the best Korean officers were then incorporated into the Japanese army. Peattie compares the resulting mutinies amongst Korean soldiers to the [[1877]] [[Satsuma Rebellion]], in which samurai rose up against the destruction of their elite warrior class; both were powerfully and successfully suppressed by the Imperial Japanese Army. Other major objectives in the earliest stages included the establishment of telegraph lines, railroads, a postal system, and telephone lines, integrating Korea into the Japanese domestic communications and transportation systems.<ref>Duus, 141.</ref>

Japanese rule in Korea continued to inspire Korean resistance, which led to open rebellion in [[1908]] to [[1910]]. The assassination of Itô Hirobumi in [[1909]] by activist [[An Jung-geun]] spurred Japanese authorities to move forward with the culmination of plans already underway to formally annex Korea; this they did the following year, marking the end of Korea as "protectorate" and the beginning of Korea as "colony."

Japanese rule in Korea continued to inspire Korean resistance, which led to open rebellion in [[1908]] to [[1910]]. The assassination of Itô Hirobumi in [[1909]] by activist [[An Jung-geun]] spurred Japanese authorities to move forward with the culmination of plans already underway to formally annex Korea; this they did the following year, marking the end of Korea as "protectorate" and the beginning of Korea as "colony."