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Chinese traders operating in Nagasaki were in no way representatives of the Chinese Court, and engaged in such travel and trade privately, in violation of Chinese bans on trade with Japan. China had severed formal relations with Japan in the 1550s, and this was never restored for the remainder of the [[Ming Dynasty]] through most of the [[Qing Dynasty]], until after the [[Meiji Restoration]]. The number of ships calling at Nagasaki fluctuated over the course of the period, but typically ranged between the tens and twenties. In [[1684]], 24 Chinese ships called at Nagasaki; that same year, following the [[1683]] defeat by the Qing of the last of the [[Ming loyalists]] on [[Taiwan]], the Qing lifted bans on maritime activity on the south coast of China. The following year, 85 Chinese ships attempted to trade at Nagasaki, spurring the shogunate to restrict Chinese and Dutch trade to 6000 and 3000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kan]]'' (a measure of [[silver]]), respectively, worth of trade. Once the requisite amount of trade had been completed, additional ships were turned away. In [[1715]], shogunal advisor [[Arai Hakuseki]] oversaw the implementation of a new set of policies which limited Chinese ships to thirty, and Dutch to two, each year; his regulations also drew upon the Chinese [[kango boeki|tally trade]] system, giving each Chinese ship that left Nagasaki half of a seal which, when matched with the half retained by Nagasaki officials, would constitute a license to trade. This, combined with the efforts of the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'', or customs-house, established in [[1698]], it was hoped, would severely cut down on smuggling.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 52-53.</ref>

Chinese traders operating in Nagasaki were in no way representatives of the Chinese Court, and engaged in such travel and trade privately, in violation of Chinese bans on trade with Japan. China had severed formal relations with Japan in the 1550s, and this was never restored for the remainder of the [[Ming Dynasty]] through most of the [[Qing Dynasty]], until after the [[Meiji Restoration]]. The number of ships calling at Nagasaki fluctuated over the course of the period, but typically ranged between the tens and twenties. In [[1684]], 24 Chinese ships called at Nagasaki; that same year, following the [[1683]] defeat by the Qing of the last of the [[Ming loyalists]] on [[Taiwan]], the Qing lifted bans on maritime activity on the south coast of China. The following year, 85 Chinese ships attempted to trade at Nagasaki, spurring the shogunate to restrict Chinese and Dutch trade to 6000 and 3000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kan]]'' (a measure of [[silver]]), respectively, worth of trade. Once the requisite amount of trade had been completed, additional ships were turned away. In [[1715]], shogunal advisor [[Arai Hakuseki]] oversaw the implementation of a new set of policies which limited Chinese ships to thirty, and Dutch to two, each year; his regulations also drew upon the Chinese [[kango boeki|tally trade]] system, giving each Chinese ship that left Nagasaki half of a seal which, when matched with the half retained by Nagasaki officials, would constitute a license to trade. This, combined with the efforts of the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'', or customs-house, established in [[1698]], it was hoped, would severely cut down on smuggling.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 52-53.</ref>

In the 18th century, the shogunate encouraged the expansion of the domestic production of [[sugar]], [[ginseng]], and [[silk]], in an effort to use import substitution measures to stem the dangerous flow of silver out of the country. As a result, fewer (though sometimes larger) Chinese ships came to trade. In the latter portion of this century, from [[1764]] onwards, on average eleven Chinese ships called at Nagasaki each year. While they continued to bring in sugar, ginseng, and silk for sale, they also continued to bring in other luxury goods, such as tortoiseshell, sandalwood, ivory, and a wide variety of [[kanpo|medicinal]] products such as herbs and roots.

In the 18th century, the shogunate encouraged the expansion of the domestic production of [[sugar]], [[ginseng]], and [[silk]], in an effort to use import substitution measures to stem the dangerous flow of silver out of the country. As a result, fewer (though sometimes larger) Chinese ships came to trade. In the latter portion of this century, from [[1764]] onwards, on average eleven Chinese ships called at Nagasaki each year. While they continued to bring in sugar, ginseng, and silk for sale, they also continued to bring in other luxury goods, such as tortoiseshell, sandalwood, ivory, and a wide variety of [[kanpo|medicinal]] products such as herbs and roots. [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] expressed desires to more severely limit, or even eliminate entirely, Chinese trade at the port, emphasizing the value instead of encouraging the people of Nagasaki to pursue agriculture or industry, but knew it was not possible, as demand for medicinal goods was just too powerful. In [[1790]], he imposed restrictions, limiting the Chinese to only ten ships a year. Profits continued, however, unabated, and indeed soared, with the ''Nagasaki kaisho'' earning an unprecedented 2,742 ''kan'' in bullion imports via the supplemental trade in [[1801]].<ref>Hellyer, 109.</ref>

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