Changes

A [[Convention of Japanese Immigration]] signed in [[1886]] established various formal protocols and procedures for the immigration process, and provided for certain rights and protections for the laborers. Some of these rights (suffrage, ability to become naturalized Hawaiian citizens) were severely weakened or nullified by the Bayonet Constitution which was forced upon the Hawaiian monarchy by white businessmen the following year. The Convention was also revised in that year, and later revised again, to require laborers to pay out of their already meager incomes to help cover the costs of their transportation, medical care, and the like guaranteed to them by the Convention. Though the fees were initially quite high, in the end, workers in this period earned on average $12.50 per month.

A [[Convention of Japanese Immigration]] signed in [[1886]] established various formal protocols and procedures for the immigration process, and provided for certain rights and protections for the laborers. Some of these rights (suffrage, ability to become naturalized Hawaiian citizens) were severely weakened or nullified by the Bayonet Constitution which was forced upon the Hawaiian monarchy by white businessmen the following year. The Convention was also revised in that year, and later revised again, to require laborers to pay out of their already meager incomes to help cover the costs of their transportation, medical care, and the like guaranteed to them by the Convention. Though the fees were initially quite high, in the end, workers in this period earned on average $12.50 per month.

In the first ten years of immigration, from 1885-1894, twenty-six boat trips brought a total of nearly 30,000 Japanese to Hawaii. The second ship to arrive, the ''Yamashiro Maru'', which came to Hawaii on June 17, 1885, brought 988 or 989 people, most of them from Hiroshima and Kumamoto. The first Japanese Consul General to Hawaii, [[Ando Taro|Andô Tarô]], came on the third ship, the ''City of Peking'', in February [[1886]]. Other ships which carried contract labors to Hawaii in the first ten years included the ''Wakanoura Maru'', ''Takasago Maru'', ''Omi Maru'', ''Sagami Maru'', and ''Miike Maru'', most of which made the trip multiple times.<ref>For a breakdown of the number of immigrants on each of these voyages, see Odo and Sinoto, 43.</ref>

In the first ten years of immigration, from 1885-1894, twenty-six boat trips brought a total of nearly 30,000 Japanese to Hawaii. The second ship to arrive, the ''Yamashiro Maru'', which came to Hawaii on June 17, 1885, brought 988 or 989 people, most of them from Hiroshima and Kumamoto. The first Japanese Consul General to Hawaii, [[Ando Taro|Andô Tarô]], came on the third ship, the ''City of Peking'', in February [[1886]]. Other ships which carried contract labors to Hawaii in the first ten years included the ''Wakanoura Maru'', ''Takasago Maru'', ''Omi Maru'', ''Sagami Maru'', and ''Miike Maru'', most of which made the trip multiple times.<ref>For a breakdown of the number of immigrants on each of these voyages, see Odo and Sinoto, 43.</ref>  

Certain portions of the emigration process were managed by private companies in Japan since the earliest days, and even though the Convention of 1886 expanded the Japanese government's responsibilities in overseeing immigration to Hawaii, the burden of administrative work associated with the process led to the Japanese government turning over operations of much of the initial stages of the application and selection process to private companies beginning in [[1894]].<ref>The most major of these companies are listed on Odo and Sinoto, 44.</ref> These companies charged the emigrants a variety of fees, and also earned commissions from railroads, steamships, inns, and other agencies working with the emigrants, in order to make their profits. By this time, selection criteria became somewhat more selective; agents sought to recruit chiefly men from farming families (who therefore had the experience and physical ability), ages 20-30, excluding those obligated to military service, or those who sought to go to Hawaii with their children but without their wives. These private immigration companies dominated the process for about ten years, until [[1905]], when the Foreign Office cracked down on them for their unfair practices; from that time until the end of Japanese immigration to the US in 1924, the Japanese government handled immigration matters directly, without any private companies collecting fees or commissions.

Certain portions of the emigration process were managed by private companies in Japan since the earliest days, and even though the Convention of 1886 expanded the Japanese government's responsibilities in overseeing immigration to Hawaii, the burden of administrative work associated with the process led to the Japanese government turning over operations of much of the initial stages of the application and selection process to private companies beginning in [[1894]].<ref>The most major of these companies are listed on Odo and Sinoto, 44.</ref> These companies charged the emigrants a variety of fees, and also earned commissions from railroads, steamships, inns, and other agencies working with the emigrants, in order to make their profits. By this time, selection criteria became somewhat more selective; agents sought to recruit chiefly men from farming families (who therefore had the experience and physical ability), ages 20-30, excluding those obligated to military service, or those who sought to go to Hawaii with their children but without their wives. These private immigration companies dominated the process for about ten years, until [[1905]], when the Foreign Office cracked down on them for their unfair practices; from that time until the end of Japanese immigration to the US in 1924, the Japanese government handled immigration matters directly, without any private companies collecting fees or commissions.

==Annexation and the end of contract labor==

==Annexation and the end of contract labor==

The annexation of Hawaii by the United States in July [[1898]] brought with it the end of contract labor, which was outlawed by the US government in 1900. Now freed from their contracts and free to move elsewhere, many Japanese did so, in the hopes of finding better paying jobs or better living conditions otherwise. Between 1901 and 1907, more than 50,000 Japanese left Hawaii for Seattle and San Francisco. Of those who stayed in Hawaii, some became entrepreneurs themselves, with some finding considerable success in their business endeavors. Japanese plantation workers in Hawaii at this time earned on average $15-18.50 per month.

The annexation of Hawaii by the United States in July [[1898]] brought with it the end of contract labor, which was outlawed by the US government in 1900. Now freed from their contracts and free to move elsewhere, many Japanese did so, in the hopes of finding better paying jobs or better living conditions otherwise. Between 1901 and 1907, more than 50,000 Japanese left Hawaii for Seattle and San Francisco. Meanwhile, roughly 75% of those who came in 1885-1890 had already returned to Japan or moved to the US mainland after their contracts ended, rather than settle more permanently in Hawaii. Of those who stayed in Hawaii, some became entrepreneurs themselves, with some finding considerable success in their business endeavors. Japanese plantation workers in Hawaii at this time earned on average $15-18.50 per month.

 

Thus, fearing a continued dramatic loss of labor for the plantations, plantation owners worked to recruit more Japanese immigrants. In 1898-1899 alone, roughly 30,000 Japanese newly arrived in Hawaii, roughly doubling the Japanese population there. This influx is credited with contributing greatly to the vibrant cultural life and cohesiveness of the community, and thus leading to more Japanese in the islands becoming interested in staying in Hawaii and settling there more permanently.

In [[1907]], however, a US Presidential Order banned Japanese from moving from Hawaii to the mainland United States. The following year, in response to nativist and anti-Japanese sentiment among Americans on the West Coast, the US and Japanese governments entered into an informal agreement, known as the Rout-Takahira [[Gentlemen's Agreement]], which further restricted Japanese immigration to the United States. Only Japanese who had previously already emigrated to the US, and their immediate relatives, could now enter the country. This sparked the birth of the phenomenon of "picture brides," in which Japanese men in the US married women from Japan, based only on their photo, or other limited information, enabling the woman to then emigrate to the US. Japanese plantation laborers held a major strike for the first time in [[1909]], and in 1913, California put into place restrictions on Japanese ownership of land. The Japanese sugar plantation workers formed their first labor union in 1919, and held their second major strike, this time alongside Filipino workers, the following year. In 1921, the local government in Hawaii imposed restrictions on Japanese language schools in the islands, against which the Japanese community filed a lawsuit, claiming the law to be unconstitutional. Meanwhile, the Pan-Pacific Newspaper Conference held a discussion between anti-Japanese groups, and Japanese supporters, on the subject of the possibility of Japanese assimilation into American society. The average wage for Japanese plantation workers in Hawaii was around $20/month at this time.

In [[1907]], however, a US Presidential Order banned Japanese from moving from Hawaii to the mainland United States. The following year, in response to nativist and anti-Japanese sentiment among Americans on the West Coast, the US and Japanese governments entered into an informal agreement, known as the Rout-Takahira [[Gentlemen's Agreement]], which further restricted Japanese immigration to the United States. Only Japanese who had previously already emigrated to the US, and their immediate relatives, could now enter the country. This sparked the birth of the phenomenon of "picture brides," in which Japanese men in the US married women from Japan, based only on their photo, or other limited information, enabling the woman to then emigrate to the US. Japanese plantation laborers held a major strike for the first time in [[1909]], and in 1913, California put into place restrictions on Japanese ownership of land. The Japanese sugar plantation workers formed their first labor union in 1919, and held their second major strike, this time alongside Filipino workers, the following year. In 1921, the local government in Hawaii imposed restrictions on Japanese language schools in the islands, against which the Japanese community filed a lawsuit, claiming the law to be unconstitutional. Meanwhile, the Pan-Pacific Newspaper Conference held a discussion between anti-Japanese groups, and Japanese supporters, on the subject of the possibility of Japanese assimilation into American society. The average wage for Japanese plantation workers in Hawaii was around $20/month at this time.

*Franklin Odo and Kazuko Sinoto, ''A Pictorial History of the Japanese in Hawaii 1885-1924'', Bishop Museum (1985).

*Franklin Odo and Kazuko Sinoto, ''A Pictorial History of the Japanese in Hawaii 1885-1924'', Bishop Museum (1985).

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[[Category:Meiji Period]]

[[Category:Meiji Period]]