Changes

The Qing began to impose new cultural mandates upon the Chinese in [[1645]], the year after they took Beijing. All men were now required to wear their hair in long ponytails, known as queues. Though initially strongly resisted as a barbarian custom, and as wholly different from Chinese tradition, within a few generations, Han Chinese came to cherish this as part of their own customs and identity. Most if not all Chinese who emigrated to the United States (and elsewhere) in the 19th century wore such queues, as well as adhering to other Manchu-imposed cultural norms, and many found difficulty in abandoning these practices.

The Qing began to impose new cultural mandates upon the Chinese in [[1645]], the year after they took Beijing. All men were now required to wear their hair in long ponytails, known as queues. Though initially strongly resisted as a barbarian custom, and as wholly different from Chinese tradition, within a few generations, Han Chinese came to cherish this as part of their own customs and identity. Most if not all Chinese who emigrated to the United States (and elsewhere) in the 19th century wore such queues, as well as adhering to other Manchu-imposed cultural norms, and many found difficulty in abandoning these practices.

*cultural changes - queue, etc.

*cultural changes - queue, etc.

==Demographic & Economic Expansion==

==Demographic & Economic Expansion==

The population of China in the 19th century was around 400-450 million.<ref>Benjamin Elman, ''A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China'', University of California Press (2000), 130.</ref>

The population of China roughly tripled over the course of the Qing Dynasty, going from roughly 125-150 million at the beginning of the period, to around 400-450 million in the 19th century.<ref>Benjamin Elman, ''A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China'', University of California Press (2000), 130.</ref> By the 19th century, there were roughly six times as many farming families in China as in the 14th century. This dramatic population growth was supported in large part, as it was through the Ming Dynasty, by considerable increases in the food supply. In the Qing Dynasty, this came chiefly from expansion of the amount of land under cultivation, and from improvements in fertilizer, irrigation, and strains of plants. The introduction in the late Ming of new crops from the Americas, including maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts, also contributed to the expansion of the food supply.<ref name=craig101>[[Albert M. Craig]], ''The Heritage of Chinese Civilization'', Third Edition, Prentice Hall (2011), 101-103.</ref>

 

The Jiangnan region (south of the Yangzi, and including the cities of [[Hangzhou]], [[Suzhou]], and [[Shanghai]]) continued to grow increasingly densely populated and urbanized over the course of the period. The vast majority of the agricultural land in the region was used for growing cash crops such as silk and cotton, and by the beginning of the 19th century, the region needed to import food in considerable quantities in order to support itself.<ref name=craig101/>

Throughout much of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese tea, silk, and [[porcelain]] were in high demand both within East Asia and among European markets. Europeans did not discover the techniques for producing porcelain themselves until the 18th century. Tea + silk constituted at least 50% of Chinese exports throughout the 19th century, peaking as high as 92% in 1842 and 93.5% in 1868, though this figure fell to 64.5% in 1890, just before the turn of the century. At least 40% of tea production in China was for export, and 50-70% of silk production, all the way to the 1920s. Jumping ahead to the 20th century, the loss of foreign markets in the 1930s through 1940s (and into the PRC era) thus deprived "countless thousands of Chinese peasants" of their livelihoods.<ref name=esherick>Joseph Esherick, "Harvard on China: The Apologetics of Imperialism." ''Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars'' 4:4 (1972), 10.</ref>

Throughout much of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese tea, silk, and [[porcelain]] were in high demand both within East Asia and among European markets. Europeans did not discover the techniques for producing porcelain themselves until the 18th century. Tea + silk constituted at least 50% of Chinese exports throughout the 19th century, peaking as high as 92% in 1842 and 93.5% in 1868, though this figure fell to 64.5% in 1890, just before the turn of the century. At least 40% of tea production in China was for export, and 50-70% of silk production, all the way to the 1920s. Jumping ahead to the 20th century, the loss of foreign markets in the 1930s through 1940s (and into the PRC era) thus deprived "countless thousands of Chinese peasants" of their livelihoods.<ref name=esherick>Joseph Esherick, "Harvard on China: The Apologetics of Imperialism." ''Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars'' 4:4 (1972), 10.</ref>

However, in return, the Chinese demanded chiefly precious metals as payment, insisting they had little need or desire for European goods. With the chief sources of precious metals in the New World controlled by the Spanish & Portuguese, and Japanese mines - the most significant other source of silver in the world at the time - running dry midway through the 18th century, European powers sought alternative ways to access Chinese goods. The [[British East India Company]] turned to pushing [[opium]] upon Chinese merchants at [[Canton]] (Guangzhou) as an alternative to payment in silver or gold. This quickly turned into a serious problem for the Chinese government, and society, as opium addiction ran rampant. The efforts of Canton Imperial Port Commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] to stem the tide, by collecting and destroying several million pounds of opium in the port, led to the outbreak of the [[Opium War]] in [[1840]], which is often cited as marking the beginning of the end for the Qing Dynasty. The war ended in a decisive British victory, and in the Qing Court being forced to grant numerous concessions to the British, including opening more ports to trade, granting rights of [[extraterritoriality]] to British subjects in China, paying the British Crown several million silver dollars in reparations, and ceding [[Hong Kong]] to the United Kingdom entirely. A [[Second Opium War]] would follow, in [[1856]]-[[1860]]. As late as 1870, opium still constituted 43% of China's imports, and until 1890, it remained the largest single import product in China.<ref name=esherick/>

However, in return, the Chinese demanded chiefly precious metals as payment, insisting they had little need or desire for European goods. The Chinese had their own silver mines in [[Guizhou province|Guizhou]] and [[Yunnan province]]s, and opened new copper mines in the 18th century,<ref name=craig101/> but still demanded influxes of precious metals from overseas in order to fuel their still-growing economy. With the chief sources of precious metals in the New World controlled by the Spanish & Portuguese, and Japanese mines - the most significant other source of silver in the world at the time - running dry midway through the 18th century, European powers sought alternative ways to access Chinese goods. The [[British East India Company]] turned to pushing [[opium]] upon Chinese merchants at [[Canton]] (Guangzhou) as an alternative to payment in silver or gold. This quickly turned into a serious problem for the Chinese government, and society, as opium addiction ran rampant. The efforts of Canton Imperial Port Commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] to stem the tide, by collecting and destroying several million pounds of opium in the port, led to the outbreak of the [[Opium War]] in [[1840]], which is often cited as marking the beginning of the end for the Qing Dynasty. The war ended in a decisive British victory, and in the Qing Court being forced to grant numerous concessions to the British, including opening more ports to trade, granting rights of [[extraterritoriality]] to British subjects in China, paying the British Crown several million silver dollars in reparations, and ceding [[Hong Kong]] to the United Kingdom entirely. A [[Second Opium War]] would follow, in [[1856]]-[[1860]]. As late as 1870, opium still constituted 43% of China's imports, and until 1890, it remained the largest single import product in China.<ref name=esherick/>

 

By the 19th century, China was quite likely one of the most commercialized parts of the world, alongside Japan. Organizations known as ''[[Shanxi piaohao]]'', originating in [[Shanxi province]], emerged during the early Qing Dynasty, a very significant development representing the creation of an early banking system. These ''piaohao'' operated branches in various parts of China, extending lines of credit, and allowing funds to be transferred across long distances. The ''piaohao'' survived into the modern period, eventually opening branches in Japan, Russia, and Singapore.<ref name=craig101/>

==Arts & Culture==

==Arts & Culture==